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Brandt N, Köper F, Hausmann J, Bräuer AU. Spotlight on plasticity-related genes: Current insights in health and disease. Pharmacol Ther 2024; 260:108687. [PMID: 38969308 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2024.108687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
The development of the central nervous system is highly complex, involving numerous developmental processes that must take place with high spatial and temporal precision. This requires a series of complex and well-coordinated molecular processes that are tighly controlled and regulated by, for example, a variety of proteins and lipids. Deregulations in these processes, including genetic mutations, can lead to the most severe maldevelopments. The present review provides an overview of the protein family Plasticity-related genes (PRG1-5), including their role during neuronal differentiation, their molecular interactions, and their participation in various diseases. As these proteins can modulate the function of bioactive lipids, they are able to influence various cellular processes. Furthermore, they are dynamically regulated during development, thus playing an important role in the development and function of synapses. First studies, conducted not only in mouse experiments but also in humans, revealed that mutations or dysregulations of these proteins lead to changes in lipid metabolism, resulting in severe neurological deficits. In recent years, as more and more studies have shown their involvement in a broad range of diseases, the complexity and broad spectrum of known and as yet unknown interactions between PRGs, lipids, and proteins make them a promising and interesting group of potential novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Brandt
- Research Group Anatomy, Department of Human Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Franziska Köper
- Research Group Anatomy, Department of Human Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Jens Hausmann
- Research Group Anatomy, Department of Human Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Anja U Bräuer
- Research Group Anatomy, Department of Human Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany; Research Center for Neurosensory Science, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany.
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Polyzou A, Fuchs J, Kroon C, Kotoula A, Delis F, Turko P, Antoniou K, Eickholt B, Leondaritis G. Cell type-specific and subcellular expression of phospholipid phosphatase-related proteins to modulate lyso-phosphatidic acid synaptic signaling in the developing and adult CNS. J Neurochem 2024. [PMID: 38994820 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.16169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a bioactive phospholipid that participates in critical processes in neural development and adult brain function and is implicated in various pathophysiological conditions. Along with its six well-characterized receptors, atypical regulators of LPA signaling have also been suggested, including phospholipid phosphatase-related proteins (PLPPRs). PLPPRs have been mostly studied in the developing brain where they control LPA-dependent axon guidance, cortical network hyperexcitability, and glutamatergic neurotransmission. PLPPR4 and PLPPR3 represent two closely related proteins reported to localize predominantly in dendrites and axons, respectively, and differ in their developmental expression patterns. Herein, we have revised the expression patterns of PLPPRs in the cerebellum, dorsal and ventral hippocampus, prefrontal cortex (PFC), nucleus accumbens, and striatum during development and in the adult using quantitative PCR. Expression patterns of Plppr2,4 and 5 were consistent with previous studies, whereas Plppr3 and Plppr1 exhibited a unique expression profile in nucleus accumbens (NAc) and striatum in later developmental and adult stages, which we verified at the protein level for PLPPR3. To investigate neuron type-specific expression at the single cell level, we developed a bioinformatic tool to analyze recent single-cell RNA-sequencing data in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of adult mice. Our analysis revealed a widespread but also selective adult neuron-type expression with higher expression levels of Plppr3, Plppr1, and Plppr5 in GABAergic and Plppr4 and Plppr2 in glutamatergic neurons. PLPPR4 has been identified as a post-synaptic modulator of LPA levels in glutamatergic synapses operating via an uptake mechanism, to control LPA-dependent cortical network hyperexcitability. Using subcellular fractionation experiments, we found that both PLPPR4 and PLPPR3 are co-expressed in adult synaptosomal membranes. Furthermore, flow cytometry experiments in HEK293 cells showed comparable LPA uptake by PLPPR4 and PLPPR3, whereas PLPRR3, but not PLPPR4, induced also uptake of monoacylglycerol, the dephosphorylation product of LPA. We propose that synaptic LPA may be subject to both pre-synaptic and post-synaptic mechanisms of regulation by PLPPRs in addition to LPARs in developing and adult synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Polyzou
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Joachim Fuchs
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité -Universitätsmedizin-Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cristina Kroon
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité -Universitätsmedizin-Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Androniki Kotoula
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Foteini Delis
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Paul Turko
- Institut für Integrative Neuroanatomie, Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katerina Antoniou
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
- Institute of Biosciences, University Research Center Ioannina, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Britta Eickholt
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité -Universitätsmedizin-Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - George Leondaritis
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
- Institute of Biosciences, University Research Center Ioannina, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
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Du J, Nakachi Y, Murata Y, Kiyota E, Kato T, Bundo M, Iwamoto K. Exploration of cell type-specific somatic mutations in schizophrenia and the impact of maternal immune activation on the somatic mutation profile in the brain. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2024; 78:237-247. [PMID: 38334156 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.13640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
AIM Schizophrenia (SZ) is a severe psychiatric disorder caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Although somatic mutations that occur in the brain after fertilization may play an important role in the cause of SZ, their frequencies and patterns in the brains of patients and related animal models have not been well studied. This study aimed to find somatic mutations related to the pathophysiology of SZ. METHODS We performed whole-exome sequencing (WES) of neuronal and nonneuronal nuclei isolated from the postmortem prefrontal cortex of patients with SZ (n = 10) and controls (n = 10). After detecting somatic mutations, we explored the similarities and differences in shared common mutations between two cell types and cell type-specific mutations. We also performed WES of prefrontal cortex samples from an animal model of SZ based on maternal immune activation (MIA) and explored the possible impact of MIA on the patterns of somatic mutations. RESULTS We did not find quantitative differences in somatic mutations but found higher variant allele fractions of neuron-specific mutations in patients with SZ. In the mouse model, we found a larger variation in the number of somatic mutations in the offspring of MIA mice, with the occurrence of somatic mutations in neurodevelopment-related genes. CONCLUSION Somatic mutations occurring at an earlier stage of brain cell differentiation toward neurons may be important for the cause of SZ. MIA may affect somatic mutation profiles in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbin Du
- Department of Molecular Brain Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yutaka Nakachi
- Department of Molecular Brain Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yui Murata
- Department of Molecular Brain Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Laboratory for Molecular Dynamics of Mental Disorders, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako, Japan
| | - Emi Kiyota
- Department of Molecular Brain Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Tadafumi Kato
- Laboratory for Molecular Dynamics of Mental Disorders, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako, Japan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Miki Bundo
- Department of Molecular Brain Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Laboratory for Molecular Dynamics of Mental Disorders, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako, Japan
| | - Kazuya Iwamoto
- Department of Molecular Brain Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Laboratory for Molecular Dynamics of Mental Disorders, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako, Japan
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Radak M, Ghamari N, Fallahi H. Identification of common factors among fibrosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, and osteosarcoma by network analysis. Biosystems 2024; 235:105093. [PMID: 38052344 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2023.105093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Sarcoma cancers are uncommon malignant tumors, and there are many subgroups, including fibrosarcoma (FS), which mainly affects middle-aged and older adults in deep soft tissues. Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), on the other hand, is the most common soft-tissue sarcoma in children and is located in the head and neck area. Osteosarcomas (OS) is the predominant form of primary bone cancer among young adults, primarily resulting from sporadically random mutations. This frequently results in the dissemination of cancer cells to the lungs, commonly known as metastasis. Mesodermal cells are the origin of sarcoma cancers. In this study, a rather radical approach has been applied. Instead of comparing homogenous cancer types, we focus on three main subtypes of sarcoma: fibrosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, and osteosarcoma, and compare their gene expression with normal cell groups to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Next, by applying protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, we determine the hub genes and crucial factors, such as transcription factors (TFs), affected by these types of cancer. Our findings indicate a modification in a range of pathways associated with cell cycle, extracellular matrix, and DNA repair in these three malignancies. Results showed that fibrosarcoma (FS), rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), and osteosarcoma (OS) had 653, 1270, and 2823 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), respectively. Interestingly, there were 24 DEGs common to all three types. Network analysis showed that the fibrosarcoma network had two sub-networks identified in FS that contributed to the catabolic process of collagen via the G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathway. The rhabdomyosarcoma network included nine sub-networks associated with cell division, extracellular matrix organization, mRNA splicing via spliceosome, and others. The osteosarcoma network has 13 sub-networks, including mRNA splicing, sister chromatid cohesion, DNA repair, etc. In conclusion, the common DEGs identified in this study have been shown to play significant and multiple roles in various other cancers based on the literature review, indicating their significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Radak
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Razi University, Baq-e-Abrisham, Kermanshah, 6714967346, Iran.
| | - Nakisa Ghamari
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Razi University, Baq-e-Abrisham, Kermanshah, 6714967346, Iran.
| | - Hossein Fallahi
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Razi University, Baq-e-Abrisham, Kermanshah, 6714967346, Iran.
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Chen Y, Bräuer AU, Koch KW. Retinal degeneration protein 3 controls membrane guanylate cyclase activities in brain tissue. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1076430. [PMID: 36618828 PMCID: PMC9812585 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1076430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The retinal degeneration protein RD3 is involved in regulatory processes of photoreceptor cells. Among its main functions is the inhibition of photoreceptor specific membrane guanylate cyclases during trafficking from the inner segment to their final destination in the outer segment. However, any physiological role of RD3 in non-retinal tissue is unsolved at present and specific protein targets outside of retinal tissue have not been identified so far. The family of membrane bound guanylate cyclases share a high homology of their amino acid sequences in their cytoplasmic domains. Therefore, we reasoned that membrane guanylate cyclases that are activated by natriuretic peptides are also regulated by RD3. We analyzed transcript levels of the rd3 gene and natriuretic peptide receptor genes Npr1 and Npr2 in the mouse retina, cerebellum, hippocampus, neocortex, and the olfactory bulb during development from the embryonic to the postnatal stage at P60. The rd3 gene showed a lower expression level than Npr1 and Npr2 (encoding for GC-A and GC-B, respectively) in all tested brain tissues, but was at least one order of magnitude higher in the retina. RD3 and natriuretic peptide receptor GCs co-express in the retina and brain tissue leading to functional tests. We expressed GC-A and GC-B in HEK293T cells and measured the inhibition of GCs by RD3 after activation by natriuretic peptides yielding inhibitory constants around 25 nM. Furthermore, endogenous GCs in astrocytes were inhibited by RD3 to a similar extent. We here show for the first time that RD3 can inhibit two hormone-stimulated GCs, namely GC-A and GC-B indicating a new regulatory feature of these hormone receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaoyu Chen
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Neuroscience, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany,Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Medicine, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Anja U. Bräuer
- Division of Anatomy, Department of Human Medicine, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany,Research Center Neurosensory Science, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Karl-Wilhelm Koch
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Neuroscience, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany,Research Center Neurosensory Science, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany,*Correspondence: Karl-Wilhelm Koch,
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PRG3 and PRG5 C-Termini: Important Players in Early Neuronal Differentiation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232113007. [DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The functional importance of neuronal differentiation of the transmembrane proteins’ plasticity-related genes 3 (PRG3) and 5 (PRG5) has been shown. Although their sequence is closely related, they promote different morphological changes in neurons. PRG3 was shown to promote neuritogenesis in primary neurons; PRG5 contributes to spine induction in immature neurons and the regulation of spine density and morphology in mature neurons. Both exhibit intracellularly located C-termini of less than 50 amino acids. Varying C-termini suggested that these domains shape neuronal morphology differently. We generated mutant EGFP-fusion proteins in which the C-termini were either swapped between PRG3 and PRG5, deleted, or fused to another family member, plasticity-related gene 4 (PRG4), that was recently shown to be expressed in different brain regions. We subsequently analyzed the influence of overexpression in immature neurons. Our results point to a critical role of the PRG3 and PRG5 C-termini in shaping early neuronal morphology. However, the results suggest that the C-terminus alone might not be sufficient for promoting the morphological effects induced by PRG3 and PRG5.
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Fuchs J, Bareesel S, Kroon C, Polyzou A, Eickholt BJ, Leondaritis G. Plasma membrane phospholipid phosphatase-related proteins as pleiotropic regulators of neuron growth and excitability. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:984655. [PMID: 36187351 PMCID: PMC9520309 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.984655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal plasma membrane proteins are essential for integrating cell extrinsic and cell intrinsic signals to orchestrate neuronal differentiation, growth and plasticity in the developing and adult nervous system. Here, we shed light on the family of plasma membrane proteins phospholipid phosphatase-related proteins (PLPPRs) (alternative name, PRGs; plasticity-related genes) that fine-tune neuronal growth and synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. Several studies uncovered essential functions of PLPPRs in filopodia formation, axon guidance and branching during nervous system development and regeneration, as well as in the control of dendritic spine number and excitability. Loss of PLPPR expression in knockout mice increases susceptibility to seizures, and results in defects in sensory information processing, development of psychiatric disorders, stress-related behaviors and abnormal social interaction. However, the exact function of PLPPRs in the context of neurological diseases is largely unclear. Although initially described as active lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) ecto-phosphatases that regulate the levels of this extracellular bioactive lipid, PLPPRs lack catalytic activity against LPA. Nevertheless, they emerge as atypical LPA modulators, by regulating LPA mediated signaling processes. In this review, we summarize the effects of this protein family on cellular morphology, generation and maintenance of cellular protrusions as well as highlight their known neuronal functions and phenotypes of KO mice. We discuss the molecular mechanisms of PLPPRs including the deployment of phospholipids, actin-cytoskeleton and small GTPase signaling pathways, with a focus on identifying gaps in our knowledge to stimulate interest in this understudied protein family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Fuchs
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Shannon Bareesel
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cristina Kroon
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexandra Polyzou
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Britta J. Eickholt
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Britta J. Eickholt,
| | - George Leondaritis
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
- Institute of Biosciences, University Research Center Ioannina, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
- George Leondaritis,
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Gross I, Brandt N, Vonk D, Köper F, Wöhlbrand L, Rabus R, Witt M, Heep A, Plösch T, Hipp MS, Bräuer AU. Plasticity-Related Gene 5 Is Expressed in a Late Phase of Neurodifferentiation After Neuronal Cell-Fate Determination. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:797588. [PMID: 35496908 PMCID: PMC9053830 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.797588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
During adult neurogenesis, neuronal stem cells differentiate into mature neurons that are functionally integrated into the existing network. One hallmark during the late phase of this neurodifferentiation process is the formation of dendritic spines. These morphological specialized structures form the basis of most excitatory synapses in the brain, and are essential for neuronal communication. Additionally, dendritic spines are affected in neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease or schizophrenia. However, the mechanisms underlying spinogenesis, as well as spine pathologies, are poorly understood. Plasticity-related Gene 5 (PRG5), a neuronal transmembrane protein, has previously been linked to spinogenesis in vitro. Here, we analyze endogenous expression of the PRG5 protein in different mouse brain areas, as well as on a subcellular level. We found that native PRG5 is expressed dendritically, and in high abundance in areas characterized by their regenerative capacity, such as the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb. During adult neurogenesis, PRG5 is specifically expressed in a late phase after neuronal cell-fate determination associated with dendritic spine formation. On a subcellular level, we found PRG5 not to be localized at the postsynaptic density, but at the base of the synapse. In addition, we showed that PRG5-induced formation of membrane protrusions is independent from neuronal activity, supporting a possible role in the morphology and stabilization of spines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Gross
- Research Group Anatomy, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Nicola Brandt
- Research Group Anatomy, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Danara Vonk
- Research Group Anatomy, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Franziska Köper
- Research Group Anatomy, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Perinatal Neurobiology Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Lars Wöhlbrand
- General and Molecular Microbiology, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Rabus
- General and Molecular Microbiology, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Martin Witt
- Department of Anatomy, University Medical Center Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Axel Heep
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Perinatal Neurobiology Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Research Center Neurosensory Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Torsten Plösch
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Perinatal Neurobiology Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Research Center Neurosensory Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Mark S. Hipp
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Anja U. Bräuer
- Research Group Anatomy, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Research Center Neurosensory Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- *Correspondence: Anja U. Bräuer,
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