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Bakner NW, Ulrey EE, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ. Prospecting during egg laying informs incubation recess movements of eastern wild turkeys. MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2024; 12:4. [PMID: 38229127 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-024-00451-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Central place foragers must acquire resources and return to a central location after foraging bouts. During the egg laying (hereafter laying) period, females are constrained to a nest location, thus they must familiarize themselves with resources available within their incubation ranges after nest site selection. Use of prospecting behaviors by individuals to obtain knowledge and identify profitable (e.g., resource rich) locations on the landscape can impact demographic outcomes. As such, prospecting has been used to evaluate nest site quality both before and during the reproductive period for a variety of species. METHODS Using GPS data collected from female eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) across the southeastern United States, we evaluated if prospecting behaviors were occurring during laying and what landcover factors influenced prospecting. Specifically, we quantified areas prospected during the laying period using a cluster analysis and the return frequency (e.g., recess movements) to clustered laying patches (150-m diameter buffer around a clustered laying period location) during the incubation period. RESULTS The average proportion of recess movements to prospected locations was 56.9%. Nest fate was positively influenced (μ of posterior distribution with 95% credible 0.19, 0.06-0.37, probability of direction = 99.8%) by the number of patches (90-m diameter buffer around a clustered laying period location) a female visited during incubation recesses. Females selected for areas closer to the nest site, secondary roads, hardwood forest, mixed pine-hardwood forest, water, and shrub/scrub, whereas they avoided pine forest and open-treeless areas. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that having a diverse suite of clustered laying patches to support incubation recesses is impactful to nest fate. As such, local conditions within prospected locations during incubation may be key to successful reproductive output by wild turkeys. We suggest that prospecting could be important to other phenological periods. Furthermore, future research should evaluate how prospecting for brood-rearing locations may occur before or during the incubation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Bakner
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
| | - Erin E Ulrey
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Bret A Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Michael J Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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Bakner NW, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ. Behavioral-dependent recursive movements and implications for resource selection. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16632. [PMID: 37789205 PMCID: PMC10547709 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43907-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Within home ranges, animals repeatedly visit certain areas. Recursive movement patterns are widespread throughout the animal kingdom, but are rarely considered when developing resource selection models. We examined how behavioral state-dependent recursive movements influenced reource selection of eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) broods as they aged from day 1 to 28. Because broods become more plastic in behaviors once they begin roosting off the ground, we separated data into broods that were ground roosting (1-13 days) and tree roosting (14-28 days). We used Hidden Markov Models to identify 2 behavioral states (restricted and mobile). We extracted state-specific recursive movements based on states and specific step lengths, which we integrated into a step selection analysis to evaluate resource selection. We found that in a restricted state, ground roosting broods spent less time in areas of mixed pine-hardwoods and more time in areas with greater vegetation density. Tree roosting broods revisited areas closer to shrub/scrub landcover types, and areas with greater vegetation density. Tree roosting broods also spent less time near mixed pine-hardwoods, while spending more time in areas with greater vegetation density. We found that in a mobile state, ground roosting broods revisited areas closer to secondary roads and mixed pine-hardwoods, but farther from hardwoods. Tree roosting broods revisited areas farther from secondary roads and with greater vegetation density. Tree roosting broods also spent more time in areas closer to pine. Resource selection varied depending on behavioral state and recursive movements. However, revisitation and residence time impacted selection in both ground and tree roosting broods. Our findings highlight the need to consider how behaviors can influence movement decisions and ultimately resource selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Bakner
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
| | - Bret A Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Michael J Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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Ulrey EE, Chamberlain MJ, Collier BA. Reproductive asynchrony within social groups of female eastern wild turkeys. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10171. [PMID: 37325717 PMCID: PMC10266966 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Coordination in timing of reproduction is driven by multiple ecological and sociobiological processes for a wide array of species. Eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) use a male dominance polygynous mating system, where males communicate with females via elaborate courtship displays and vocalizations at display sites. Most females prefer to mate with dominant males; therefore, asynchronous breeding and nesting may occur which can disproportionately influence individual fitness within breeding groups. For female wild turkeys, there are reproductive advantages associated with earlier nesting. As such, we evaluated reproductive asynchrony within and between groups of GPS-tagged female eastern wild turkeys based on timing of nest initiation. We examined 30 social groups with an average of seven females per group (range 2-15) during 2014-2019 in west central Louisiana. We found that the estimated number of days between first nest initiation across females within groups varied between 3 and 7 days across years, although we expected 1-2 days to occur between successive nesting attempts of females within groups based on observations of captive wild turkeys in the extant literature. The number of days between successive nest attempts across females within groups was lower for successful than failed attempts, and nests with an average of 2.8 days between initiation of another nest were more likely to hatch. Our findings suggest that asynchronous reproduction may influence reproductive success in female wild turkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E. Ulrey
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLouisianaUSA
| | | | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLouisianaUSA
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Moscicki DJ, White JH, Hardin JB, Chamberlain MJ, Collier BA. Phenology‐specific space use by Rio Grande wild turkeys. J Wildl Manage 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David J. Moscicki
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
| | - Jacob H. White
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
| | | | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
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Nelson SD, Keever AC, Wightman PH, Bakner NW, Argabright CM, Byrne ME, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ, Cohen BS. Fine‐scale resource selection and behavioral tradeoffs of eastern wild turkey broods. J Wildl Manage 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan D. Nelson
- College of Arts and Science Tennessee Technological University Cookeville TN 38505 USA
| | - Allison C. Keever
- College of Arts and Science Tennessee Technological University Cookeville TN 38505 USA
| | - Patrick H. Wightman
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 USA
| | - Nicholas W. Bakner
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 USA
| | - Chad M. Argabright
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
| | - Michael E. Byrne
- School of Natural Resources University of Missouri Columbia MO 65211 USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
| | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 USA
| | - Bradley S. Cohen
- College of Arts and Science Tennessee Technological University Cookeville TN 38505 USA
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Pittman HT, Krementz DG. Effects of prescribed fire on prenesting movements of wild turkeys in Arkansas. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H. Tyler Pittman
- Arkansas Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville 72701 Arkansas USA
| | - David G. Krementz
- Scientist Emeritus, U.S. Geological Survey, Arkansas Cooperative Fish, and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville 72701 Arkansas USA
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Bakner NW, Cohen BS, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ. Recursive movements of eastern wild turkey broods in the southeastern United States. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W. Bakner
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens 30602 GA USA
| | - Bradley S. Cohen
- College of Arts and Science Tennessee Technological University Cookeville 38505 TN USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
| | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens 30602 GA USA
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Sullivan DJ, Wightman PH, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ. Instances of intraspecific nest parasitism in eastern and Rio Grande wild turkeys. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Sullivan
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia 180 E. Green Street Athens 30602 GA USA
| | - Patrick H. Wightman
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia 180 E. Green Street Athens 30602 GA USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
| | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia 180 E. Green Street Athens 30602 GA USA
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White JH, Moscicki DJ, Jobes D, Hardin JB, Chamberlain MJ, Collier BA. Breeding season survival of female Rio Grande wild turkeys in south‐central Texas. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob H. White
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
| | - David J. Moscicki
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
| | - Doug Jobes
- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Austin 78744 TX USA
| | | | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens 30602 GA USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
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Byrne ME, Cohen BS, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ. Nest site fidelity and nesting success of female wild turkeys. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael E. Byrne
- School of Natural Resources University of Missouri Columbia 65211 MO USA
| | - Bradley S. Cohen
- College of Arts and Sciences Tennessee Technological University Cookeville 38505 TN USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
| | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens 30602 GA USA
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11
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Ulrey EE, Cedotal CA, Chamberlain MJ, Collier BA. Spatial distribution of potential wild turkey nest predators in west‐central Louisiana. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erin E. Ulrey
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
| | - Cody A. Cedotal
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Baton Rouge 70808 LA USA
| | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens 30602 GA USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Baton Rouge 70803 LA USA
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12
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Carpenter BG, Sieving KE, Terhune T, Picardi S, Griffith A, Sheilds R, Pittman HT. Linking wild turkey hen movement data to nesting behavior. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bobbi G. Carpenter
- Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Gainesville FL 32601 USA
| | - Kathryn E. Sieving
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611‐0430 USA
| | | | - Simona Picardi
- Department of Wildland Resources and Jack H. Berryman Institute Utah State University Logan UT 84322 USA
| | | | - Roger Sheilds
- Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency Nashville TN 37211 USA
| | - Henry Tyler Pittman
- Extension Agent, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences University of Florida Trenton FL 32693 USA
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Crawford JC, Porter WF, Chamberlain MJ, Collier BA. Wild Turkey Nest Success in Pine‐Dominated Forests of the Southeastern United States. J Wildl Manage 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanne C. Crawford
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Michigan State University East Lansing MI 48824 USA
| | - William F. Porter
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Michigan State University East Lansing MI 48824 USA
| | - Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
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Lohr AK, Martin JA, Wann GT, Cohen BS, Collier BA, Chamberlain MJ. Behavioral strategies during incubation influence nest and female survival of Wild Turkeys. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:11752-11765. [PMID: 33144998 PMCID: PMC7593161 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Females must balance physiological and behavioral demands of producing offspring with associated expenditures, such as resource acquisition and predator avoidance. Nest success is an important parameter underlying avian population dynamics. Galliforms are particularly susceptible to low nest success due to exposure of ground nests to multiple predator guilds, lengthy incubation periods, and substantive reliance on crypsis for survival. Hence, it is plausible that nesting individuals prioritize productivity and survival differently, resulting in a gradient of reproductive strategies. Fine-scale movement patterns during incubation are not well documented in ground-nesting birds, and the influence of reproductive movements on survival is largely unknown. Using GPS data collected from female wild turkeys (n = 278) across the southeastern United States, we evaluated the influence of incubation recess behaviors on trade-offs between nest and female survival. We quantified daily recess behaviors including recess duration, recess frequency, total distance traveled, and incubation range size for each nest attempt as well as covariates for nest concealment, nest attempt, and nest age. Of 374 nests, 91 (24%) hatched and 39 (14%) females were depredated during incubation. Average nest survival during the incubation period was 0.19, whereas average female survival was 0.78. On average, females took 1.6 daily unique recesses (SD = 1.2), spent 2.1 hr off the nest each day (SD = 1.8), and traveled 357.6 m during recesses (SD = 396.6). Average nest concealment was 92.5 cm (SD = 47). We found that females who took longer recess bouts had higher individual survival, but had increased nest loss. Females who recessed more frequently had lower individual survival. Our findings suggest behavioral decisions made during incubation represent life-history trade-offs between predation risk and reproductive success on an unpredictable landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley K. Lohr
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGAUSA
| | - James A. Martin
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGAUSA
| | - Gregory T. Wann
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGAUSA
| | - Bradley S. Cohen
- College of Arts and SciencesTennessee Technological UniversityCookevilleTNUSA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLAUSA
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Chamberlain MJ, Cohen BS, Bakner NW, Collier BA. Behavior and Movement of Wild Turkey Broods. J Wildl Manage 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Chamberlain
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens GA 30602 USA
| | - Bradley S. Cohen
- College of Arts and Science, Tennessee Technological University Cookeville TN 38505 USA
| | - Nicholas W. Bakner
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens GA 30602 USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton Rouge LA 70803 USA
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Bakner NW, Schofield LR, Cedotal C, Chamberlain MJ, Collier BA. Incubation recess behaviors influence nest survival of Wild Turkeys. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:14053-14065. [PMID: 31938503 PMCID: PMC6953688 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In ground nesting upland birds, reproductive activities contribute to elevated predation risk, so females presumably use multiple strategies to ensure nest success. Identification of drivers reducing predation risk has primarily focused on evaluating vegetative conditions at nest sites, but behavioral decisions manifested through movements during incubation may be additional drivers of nest survival. However, our understanding of how movements during incubation impact nest survival is limited for most ground nesting birds. Using GPS data collected from female Eastern Wild Turkeys (n = 206), we evaluated nest survival as it relates to movement behaviors during incubation, including recess frequency, distance traveled during recesses, and habitat selection during recess movements. We identified 9,361 movements off nests and 6,529 recess events based on approximately 62,065 hr of incubation data, and estimated mean nest attentiveness of 84.0%. The numbers of recesses taken daily were variable across females (range: 1‒7). Nest survival modeling indicated that increased cumulative distance moved during recesses each day was the primary driver of positive daily nest survival. Our results suggest behavioral decisions are influencing trade-offs between nest survival and adult female survival during incubation to reduce predation risk, specifically through adjustments to distances traveled during recesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W. Bakner
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLouisiana
- Present address:
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGeorgia
| | - Landon R. Schofield
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLouisiana
| | - Cody Cedotal
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and FisheriesBaton RougeLouisiana
| | | | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLouisiana
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Chamberlain MJ, Wightman PH, Cohen BS, Collier BA. Gobbling activity of eastern wild turkeys relative to male movements and female nesting phenology in South Carolina. WILDLIFE SOC B 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick H. Wightman
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGA30602USA
| | - Bradley S. Cohen
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGA30602USA
| | - Bret A. Collier
- School of Renewable Natural ResourcesLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterBaton RougeLA70803USA
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Pollentier CD, Lutz RS, Drake D. Female wild turkey habitat selection in mixed forest-agricultural landscapes. J Wildl Manage 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D. Pollentier
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; 226 Russell Labs; 1630 Linden Drive Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - R. Scott Lutz
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; 226 Russell Labs; 1630 Linden Drive Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - David Drake
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; 226 Russell Labs; 1630 Linden Drive Madison WI 53706 USA
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