1
|
Meira A, Byers JE, Sousa R. A global synthesis of predation on bivalves. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1015-1057. [PMID: 38294132 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Predation is a dominant structuring force in ecological communities. In aquatic environments, predation on bivalves has long been an important focal interaction for ecological study because bivalves have central roles as ecosystem engineers, basal components of food webs, and commercial commodities. Studies of bivalves are common, not only because of bivalves' central roles, but also due to the relative ease of studying predatory effects on this taxonomic group. To understand patterns in the interactions of bivalves and their predators we synthesised data from 52 years of peer-reviewed studies on bivalve predation. Using a systematic search, we compiled 1334 studies from 75 countries, comprising 61 bivalve families (N = 2259), dominated by Mytilidae (29% of bivalves), Veneridae (14%), Ostreidae (8%), Unionidae (7%), and Dreissenidae and Tellinidae (6% each). A total of 2036 predators were studied, with crustaceans the most studied predator group (34% of predators), followed by fishes (24%), molluscs (17%), echinoderms (10%) and birds (6%). The majority of studies (86%) were conducted in marine systems, in part driven by the high commercial value of marine bivalves. Studies in freshwater ecosystems were dominated by non-native bivalves and non-native predator species, which probably reflects the important role of biological invasions affecting freshwater biodiversity. In fact, while 81% of the studied marine bivalve species were native, only 50% of the freshwater species were native to the system. In terms of approach, most studies used predation trials, visual analysis of digested contents and exclusion experiments to assess the effects of predation. These studies reflect that many factors influence bivalve predation depending on the species studied, including (i) species traits (e.g. behaviour, morphology, defence mechanisms), (ii) other biotic interactions (e.g. presence of competitors, parasites or diseases), and (iii) environmental context (e.g. temperature, current velocity, beach exposure, habitat complexity). There is a lack of research on the effects of bivalve predation at the population and community and ecosystem levels (only 7% and 0.5% of studies respectively examined impacts at these levels). At the population level, the available studies demonstrate that predation can decrease bivalve density through consumption or the reduction of recruitment. At the community and ecosystem level, predation can trigger effects that cascade through trophic levels or effects that alter the ecological functions bivalves perform. Given the conservation and commercial importance of many bivalve species, studies of predation should be pursued in the context of global change, particularly climate change, acidification and biological invasions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Meira
- CBMA - Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, 4710-057, Portugal
| | - James E Byers
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, 140 E. Green St, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Ronaldo Sousa
- CBMA - Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, 4710-057, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
LaRoche NL, King SL, Fergusson EA, Eckert GL, Pearson HC. Macronutrient composition of sea otter diet with respect to recolonization, life history, and season in southern Southeast Alaska. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10042. [PMID: 37153015 PMCID: PMC10154889 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The sea otter (Enhydra lutris) population of Southeast Alaska has been growing at a higher rate than other regions along the Pacific coast. While good for the recovery of this endangered species, rapid population growth of this apex predator can create a human-wildlife conflict, negatively impacting commercial and subsistence fishing. Previous foraging studies throughout the sea otter range have shown they will reduce invertebrate prey biomass when recolonizing an area. The goal of this study was to examine and quantify the energy content of sea otter diets through direct foraging observations and prey collection. Our study area, Prince of Wales Island in southern Southeast Alaska, exhibits a gradient of sea otter recolonization, thus providing a natural experiment to test diet change in regions with different recolonization histories. Sea otter prey items were collected in three seasons (spring, summer, and winter) to measure caloric value and lipid and protein content. We observed 3523 sea otter dives during the spring and summer. A majority of the sea otter diet consisted of clams. Sea otters in newly recolonized areas had lower diet diversity, higher energetic intake rates (EIR, kcal/min), and prey had higher energy content (kcal/g). Females with pups had the highest diet diversity and the lowest EIR. Sea otter EIR were higher in the fall and winter vs. spring and summer. Sea cucumber energy and lipid content appeared to correspond with times when sea otters consumed the highest proportion of sea cucumbers. These caloric variations are an important component of understanding ecosystem-level effects sea otters have in the nearshore environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L. LaRoche
- College of Fisheries and Ocean SciencesUniversity of Alaska FairbanksJuneauAlaskaUSA
| | - Sydney L. King
- Department of Natural SciencesUniversity of Alaska SoutheastJuneauAlaskaUSA
| | - Emily A. Fergusson
- NOAA National Marine Fisheries ServiceAlaska Fisheries Science Center, Auke Bay LaboratoriesJuneauAlaskaUSA
| | - Ginny L. Eckert
- College of Fisheries and Ocean SciencesUniversity of Alaska FairbanksJuneauAlaskaUSA
| | - Heidi C. Pearson
- College of Fisheries and Ocean SciencesUniversity of Alaska FairbanksJuneauAlaskaUSA
- Department of Natural SciencesUniversity of Alaska SoutheastJuneauAlaskaUSA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ryazanov SD, Fomin SV, Kalinchuk VV. Mercury content in the fur of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) from the Commander Islands. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 188:114638. [PMID: 36706549 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is a keystone species in the ecosystem which is currently in depression in Russia. The objectives of this study were to: (1) establish if the sea otters from the Commander Islands have hazardous levels of mercury (Hg) in their fur; (2) assess Hg pollution in sea otters during a period of high abundance and population depression; (3) identify the age and sex differences in sea otters by Hg content. The sea otters were classified from no to low risk for Hg health effects. Differences in Hg content during periods of low and high population size were not statistically significant. Hg concentrations in adult sea otters were significantly higher than in the young, and higher in males than in females. This study presents the first data on Hg content in sea otters' fur and the first estimate of Hg contamination for the Commander Islands population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergey D Ryazanov
- V.I. Il'ichev Pacific Oceanological Institute, FEB RAS, 43, Baltiiskaya Str., Vladivostok 690041, Russia.
| | - Sergey V Fomin
- Kamchatka Branch of the Pacific Geographical Institute, FEB RAS, 6, Partizanskaya Str., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683000, Russia
| | - Viktor V Kalinchuk
- V.I. Il'ichev Pacific Oceanological Institute, FEB RAS, 43, Baltiiskaya Str., Vladivostok 690041, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gorra TR, Garcia SCR, Langhans MR, Hoshijima U, Estes JA, Raimondi PT, Tinker MT, Kenner MC, Kroeker KJ. Southeast Alaskan kelp forests: inferences of process from large-scale patterns of variation in space and time. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20211697. [PMID: 35042419 PMCID: PMC8767212 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans were considered external drivers in much foundational ecological research. A recognition that humans are embedded in the complex interaction networks we study can provide new insight into our ecological paradigms. Here, we use time-series data spanning three decades to explore the effects of human harvesting on otter-urchin-kelp trophic cascades in southeast Alaska. These effects were inferred from variation in sea urchin and kelp abundance following the post fur trade repatriation of otters and a subsequent localized reduction of otters by human harvest in one location. In an example of a classic trophic cascade, otter repatriation was followed by a 99% reduction in urchin biomass density and a greater than 99% increase in kelp density region wide. Recent spatially concentrated harvesting of otters was associated with a localized 70% decline in otter abundance in one location, with urchins increasing and kelps declining in accordance with the spatial pattern of otter occupancy within that region. While the otter-urchin-kelp trophic cascade has been associated with alternative community states at the regional scale, this research highlights how small-scale variability in otter occupancy, ostensibly due to spatial variability in harvesting or the risk landscape for otters, can result in within-region patchiness in these community states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Torrey R. Gorra
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Sabrina C. R. Garcia
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Michael R. Langhans
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Umihiko Hoshijima
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - James A. Estes
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Pete T. Raimondi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - M. Tim Tinker
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Michael C. Kenner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Kristy J. Kroeker
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Foster E, Watson J, Lemay MA, Tinker MT, Estes JA, Piercey R, Henson L, Ritland C, Miscampbell A, Nichol L, Hessing-Lewis M, Salomon AK, Darimont CT. Physical disturbance by recovering sea otter populations increases eelgrass genetic diversity. Science 2021; 374:333-336. [PMID: 34648338 DOI: 10.1126/science.abf2343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin Foster
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, BC V0P 1H0, Canada.,Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Jane Watson
- Department of Biology, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
| | | | - M Tim Tinker
- Nhydra Ecological Consulting, St. Margaret's Bay, NS B3Z 2G6, Canada.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - James A Estes
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | | | - Lauren Henson
- Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada.,Raincoast Conservation Foundation, Bella Bella, BC V0T 1Z0, Canada
| | - Carol Ritland
- Genetic Data Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Allyson Miscampbell
- Genetic Data Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Linda Nichol
- Cetacean Research Program, Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
| | | | - Anne K Salomon
- School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Chris T Darimont
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, BC V0P 1H0, Canada.,Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada.,Raincoast Conservation Foundation, Bella Bella, BC V0T 1Z0, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Slade E, McKechnie I, Salomon AK. Archaeological and Contemporary Evidence Indicates Low Sea Otter Prevalence on the Pacific Northwest Coast During the Late Holocene. Ecosystems 2021; 25:548-566. [PMID: 35509679 PMCID: PMC9016008 DOI: 10.1007/s10021-021-00671-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The historic extirpation and subsequent recovery of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have profoundly changed coastal social-ecological systems across the northeastern Pacific. Today, the conservation status of sea otters is informed by estimates of population carrying capacity or growth rates independent of human impacts. However, archaeological and ethnographic evidence suggests that for millennia, complex hunting and management protocols by Indigenous communities limited sea otter abundance near human settlements to reduce the negative impacts of this keystone predator on shared shellfish prey. To assess relative sea otter prevalence in the Holocene, we compared the size structure of ancient California mussels (Mytilus californianus) from six archaeological sites in two regions on the Pacific Northwest Coast, to modern California mussels at locations with and without sea otters. We also quantified modern mussel size distributions from eight locations on the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada, varying in sea otter occupation time. Comparisons of mussel size spectra revealed that ancient mussel size distributions are consistently more similar to modern size distributions at locations with a prolonged absence of sea otters. This indicates that late Holocene sea otters were maintained well below carrying capacity near human settlements as a result of human intervention. These findings illuminate the conditions under which sea otters and humans persisted over millennia prior to the Pacific maritime fur trade and raise important questions about contemporary conservation objectives for an iconic marine mammal and the social-ecological system in which it is embedded.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin Slade
- School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6 Canada
| | - Iain McKechnie
- Historical Ecology & Coastal Archaeology Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Cornett B246a, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2 Canada
- Hakai Institute, Heriot Bay, Quadra Island, British Columbia Canada
- Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre, Bamfield, British Columbia V0R 1B0 Canada
| | - Anne K. Salomon
- School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tinker MT, Yee JL, Laidre KL, Hatfield BB, Harris MD, Tomoleoni JA, Bell TW, Saarman E, Carswell LP, Miles AK. Habitat Features Predict Carrying Capacity of a Recovering Marine Carnivore. J Wildl Manage 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Tim Tinker
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center Santa Cruz Field Station 2885 Mission Street Santa Cruz CA 95060 USA
| | - Julie L. Yee
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center Santa Cruz Field Station 2885 Mission Street Santa Cruz CA 95060 USA
| | - Kristin L. Laidre
- Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington 1013 NE 40th Street Seattle WA 98105 USA
| | - Brian B. Hatfield
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center Santa Cruz Field Station 2885 Mission Street Santa Cruz CA 95060 USA
| | - Michael D. Harris
- California Department of Fish and Wildlife Office of Spill Prevention and Response—Veterinary Services 1385 Main Street Morro Bay CA 93442 USA
| | - Joseph A. Tomoleoni
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center Santa Cruz Field Station 2885 Mission Street Santa Cruz CA 95060 USA
| | - Tom W. Bell
- Earth Research Institute University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara California 93106 USA
| | - Emily Saarman
- Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO), Long Marine Laboratory, 115 McAllister Way University of California Santa Cruz CA 95060 USA
| | | | - A. Keith Miles
- U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center 3020 State University Drive Sacramento CA 95819 USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gregr EJ, Christensen V, Nichol L, Martone RG, Markel RW, Watson JC, Harley CDG, Pakhomov EA, Shurin JB, Chan KMA. Cascading social-ecological costs and benefits triggered by a recovering keystone predator. Science 2020; 368:1243-1247. [PMID: 32527830 DOI: 10.1126/science.aay5342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Predator recovery often leads to ecosystem change that can trigger conflicts with more recently established human activities. In the eastern North Pacific, recovering sea otters are transforming coastal systems by reducing populations of benthic invertebrates and releasing kelp forests from grazing pressure. These changes threaten established shellfish fisheries and modify a variety of other ecosystem services. The diverse social and economic consequences of this trophic cascade are unknown, particularly across large regions. We developed and applied a trophic model to predict these impacts on four ecosystem services. Results suggest that sea otter presence yields 37% more total ecosystem biomass annually, increasing the value of finfish [+9.4 million Canadian dollars (CA$)], carbon sequestration (+2.2 million CA$), and ecotourism (+42.0 million CA$). To the extent that these benefits are realized, they will exceed the annual loss to invertebrate fisheries (-$7.3 million CA$). Recovery of keystone predators thus not only restores ecosystems but can also affect a range of social, economic, and ecological benefits for associated communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Gregr
- Institute for Resources Environment, and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- SciTech Environmental Consulting, 2136 Napier St., Vancouver, BC V5L 2N9, Canada
| | - Villy Christensen
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Linda Nichol
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Rd., Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Rebecca G Martone
- Institute for Resources Environment, and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Outer Shores Expeditions, P.O. Box 361, Cobble Hill, BC V0R 1L0, Canada
| | - Russell W Markel
- Institute for Resources Environment, and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Outer Shores Expeditions, P.O. Box 361, Cobble Hill, BC V0R 1L0, Canada
| | - Jane C Watson
- Biology Department, Vancouver Island University, 900 5th St. Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
| | - Christopher D G Harley
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Hakai Institute, P.O. Box 309, Heriot Bay, BC V0P 1H0, Canada
| | - Evgeny A Pakhomov
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Hakai Institute, P.O. Box 309, Heriot Bay, BC V0P 1H0, Canada
- Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jonathan B Shurin
- Section of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr. #0116, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kai M A Chan
- Institute for Resources Environment, and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|