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von Groß V, Sibhatu KT, Knohl A, Qaim M, Veldkamp E, Hölscher D, Zemp DC, Corre MD, Grass I, Fiedler S, Stiegler C, Irawan B, Sundawati L, Husmann K, Paul C. Transformation scenarios towards multifunctional landscapes: A multi-criteria land-use allocation model applied to Jambi Province, Indonesia. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 356:120710. [PMID: 38547822 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
In tropical regions, shifting from forests and traditional agroforestry to intensive plantations generates conflicts between human welfare (farmers' demands and societal needs) and environmental protection. Achieving sustainability in this transformation will inevitably involve trade-offs between multiple ecological and socioeconomic functions. To address these trade-offs, our study used a new methodological approach allowing the identification of transformation scenarios, including theoretical landscape compositions that satisfy multiple ecological functions (i.e., structural complexity, microclimatic conditions, organic carbon in plant biomass, soil organic carbon and nutrient leaching losses), and farmers needs (i.e., labor and input requirements, total income to land, and return to land and labor) while accounting for the uncertain provision of these functions and having an actual potential for adoption by farmers. We combined a robust, multi-objective optimization approach with an iterative search algorithm allowing the identification of ecological and socioeconomic functions that best explain current land-use decisions. The model then optimized the theoretical land-use composition that satisfied multiple ecological and socioeconomic functions. Between these ends, we simulated transformation scenarios reflecting the transition from current land-use composition towards a normative multifunctional optimum. These transformation scenarios involve increasing the number of optimized socioeconomic or ecological functions, leading to higher functional richness (i.e., number of functions). We applied this method to smallholder farms in the Jambi Province, Indonesia, where traditional rubber agroforestry, rubber plantations, and oil palm plantations are the main land-use systems. Given the currently practiced land-use systems, our study revealed short-term returns to land as the principal factor in explaining current land-use decisions. Fostering an alternative composition that satisfies additional socioeconomic functions would require minor changes ("low-hanging fruits"). However, satisfying even a single ecological indicator (e.g., reduction of nutrient leaching losses) would demand substantial changes in the current land-use composition ("moonshot"). This would inevitably lead to a profit decline, underscoring the need for incentives if the societal goal is to establish multifunctional agricultural landscapes. With many oil palm plantations nearing the end of their production cycles in the Jambi province, there is a unique window of opportunity to transform agricultural landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker von Groß
- Forest Economics and Sustainable Land-use Planning, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany.
| | - Kibrom T Sibhatu
- International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Alexander Knohl
- Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable land-use, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany; Bioclimatology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Matin Qaim
- Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Bonn, 53113, Germany
| | - Edzo Veldkamp
- Soil Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Dirk Hölscher
- Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable land-use, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany; Tropical Silviculture and Forest Ecology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Delphine Clara Zemp
- Conservation Biology Lab, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, 2000, Switzerland
| | - Marife D Corre
- Soil Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Ingo Grass
- Department of Ecology of Tropical Agricultural Systems, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, 70599, Germany
| | - Sebastian Fiedler
- Ecosystem Modelling, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | | | - Bambang Irawan
- Forestry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jambi, Jambi, 36122, Indonesia; Center of Excellence for Land-Use Transformation Systems, University of Jambi, Jambi, 36122, Indonesia
| | - Leti Sundawati
- Department of Forest Management, IPB University, Bogor, 16680, Indonesia
| | - Kai Husmann
- Forest Economics and Sustainable Land-use Planning, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Carola Paul
- Forest Economics and Sustainable Land-use Planning, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany; Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable land-use, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
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Tuneu-Corral C, Puig-Montserrat X, Riba-Bertolín D, Russo D, Rebelo H, Cabeza M, López-Baucells A. Pest suppression by bats and management strategies to favour it: a global review. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1564-1582. [PMID: 37157976 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Fighting insect pests is a major challenge for agriculture worldwide, and biological control and integrated pest management constitute well-recognised, cost-effective ways to prevent and overcome this problem. Bats are important arthropod predators globally and, in recent decades, an increasing number of studies have focused on the role of bats as natural enemies of agricultural pests. This review assesses the state of knowledge of the ecosystem services provided by bats as pest consumers at a global level and provides recommendations that may favour the efficiency of pest predation by bats. Through a systematic review, we assess evidence for predation, the top-down effect of bats on crops and the economic value of ecosystem services these mammals provide, describing the different methodological approaches used in a total of 66 reviewed articles and 18 agroecosystem types. We also provide a list of detailed conservation measures and management recommendations found in the scientific literature that may favour the delivery of this important ecosystem service, including actions aimed at restoring bat populations in agroecosystems. The most frequent recommendations include increasing habitat heterogeneity, providing additional roosts, and implementing laws to protect bats and reduce agrochemical use. However, very little evidence is available on the direct consequences of these practices on bat insectivory in farmland. Additionally, through a second in-depth systematic review of scientific articles focused on bat diet and, as part of the ongoing European Cost Action project CA18107, we provide a complete list of 2308 documented interactions between bat species and their respective insect pest prey. These pertain to 81 bat species belonging to 36 different genera preying upon 760 insect pests from 14 orders in agroecosystems and other habitats such as forest or urban areas. The data set is publicly available and updatable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carme Tuneu-Corral
- BiBio, Biodiversity and Bioindicators Research Group, Natural Sciences Museum of Granollers, Av. Francesc Macià 51, Granollers, Catalonia, 08402, Spain
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigaçaõ em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- Global Change and Conservation Lab, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Xavier Puig-Montserrat
- BiBio, Biodiversity and Bioindicators Research Group, Natural Sciences Museum of Granollers, Av. Francesc Macià 51, Granollers, Catalonia, 08402, Spain
| | - Daniel Riba-Bertolín
- BiBio, Biodiversity and Bioindicators Research Group, Natural Sciences Museum of Granollers, Av. Francesc Macià 51, Granollers, Catalonia, 08402, Spain
| | - Danilo Russo
- Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Evolution (AnEcoEvo), Dipartimento di Agraria, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Università, 100, Portici, Naples, 80055, Italy
| | - Hugo Rebelo
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigaçaõ em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
| | - Mar Cabeza
- Global Change and Conservation Lab, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Adrià López-Baucells
- BiBio, Biodiversity and Bioindicators Research Group, Natural Sciences Museum of Granollers, Av. Francesc Macià 51, Granollers, Catalonia, 08402, Spain
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Ferrante M, Lövei GL, Lavigne L, Vicente MC, Tarantino E, Lopes DH, Monjardino P, Borges PAV. Flowering Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum) Strips Do Not Enhance Ecosystem Services in Azorean Orchards. INSECTS 2023; 14:634. [PMID: 37504640 PMCID: PMC10380325 DOI: 10.3390/insects14070634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
The effect of flower strips on ecosystem services (ESs) and disservices (EDs) is routinely assessed following changes in service provider densities without measuring the associated levels of ES/EDs. By using the sentinel approach (i.e., exposing a plant, seeds, and prey models in a standardized way), we tested how coriander (Coriandrum sativum) strips planted in mixed orchards on Terceira Island (Azores, Portugal) affected herbivory on lettuce plants, seed predation on wheat and weed seeds, and predation on artificial caterpillars. Vertebrates had more influence than invertebrates on ESs/EDs. Herbivory (ED) after 2 weeks was similar in the coriander and the control plots (mean ± SD; 2.3% ± 3.3% vs. 2.2% ± 2.9%, n = 32 for both). Seed predation was higher in the control than in the coriander plots for both grain (ED; 30.8% ± 38.9% vs. 15.3% ± 10.8%, n = 18 for both) and weed seeds (ES; 2.5% ± 4.1% vs. 0.4% ± 0.5%, n = 18 for both). Vertebrate predation (ES) rates after 48 h were significantly higher in the control (estimate 9%, 95% CI: 4-20%) than in the coriander plots (3%, 1-8%), while no difference was observed for invertebrate predation. Coriander strips did not support increased ES/reduced ED levels in this setting. The tools used can be effective to quantitatively compare multiple ESs/EDs under different farming management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ferrante
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
- Functional Agrobiodiversity, Department of Crop Science, Georg-August University of Gottingen, DE-37077 Gottingen, Germany
| | - Gabor L Lövei
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
- Flakkebjerg Research Centre, Department of Agroecology, Aarhus University, DK-4200 Slagelse, Denmark
- ELKH-DE Anthropocene Ecology Research Group, Debrecen University, HU-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Lambert Lavigne
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
- Flakkebjerg Research Centre, Department of Agroecology, Aarhus University, DK-4200 Slagelse, Denmark
| | - Mario Caballero Vicente
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
| | - Elisa Tarantino
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
| | - David Horta Lopes
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
| | - Paulo Monjardino
- CBA-Biotechnology Centre of Azores, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
| | - Paulo A V Borges
- cE3c-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, PT-9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
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Wan Zaki WM, Yahya MS, Norhisham AR, Sanusi R, van der Meer PJ, Azhar B. Agroforestry orchards support greater butterfly diversity than monoculture plantations in the tropics. Oecologia 2023; 201:863-875. [PMID: 36914820 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-023-05348-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Large-scale deforestation in the tropics, triggered by logging and subsequent agricultural monoculture has a significant adverse impact on biodiversity due to habitat degradation. Here, we measured the diversity of butterfly species in three agricultural landscapes, agroforestry orchards, oil palm, and rubber tree plantations. Butterfly species were counted at 127 sampling points over the course of a year using the point count method. We found that agroforestry orchards supported a greater number of butterfly species (74 species) compared to rubber tree (61 species) and oil palm plantations (54 species) which were dominated by generalist (73%) followed by forest specialists (27%). We found no significant difference of butterfly species composition between agroforestry orchards and rubber tree plantation, with both habitats associated with more butterfly species compared to oil palm plantations. This indicates butterflies were able to persist better in certain agricultural landscapes. GLMMs suggested that tree height, undergrowth coverage and height, and elevation determined butterfly diversity. Butterfly species richness was also influenced by season and landscape-level variables such as proximity to forest, mean NDVI, and habitat. Understanding the factors that contributed to butterfly species richness in an agroecosystem, stakeholders should consider management practices to improve biodiversity conservation such as ground vegetation management and retaining adjacent forest areas to enhance butterfly species richness. Furthermore, our findings suggest that agroforestry system should be considered to enhance biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Mamat Wan Zaki
- Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Syafiq Yahya
- Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad R Norhisham
- Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Laboratory of Bioresource Management, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ruzana Sanusi
- Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Laboratory of Bioresource Management, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Peter J van der Meer
- Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 9001, 6880 GB, Velp, The Netherlands
| | - Badrul Azhar
- Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
- Biodiversity Unit, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
- School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Iglesias-Carrasco M, Wong BBM, Jennions MD. In the shadows: wildlife behaviour in tree plantations. Trends Ecol Evol 2022; 37:838-850. [PMID: 35710479 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2022.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Destruction of natural habitats for tree plantations is a major threat to wildlife. These novel environments elicit behavioural changes that can either be detrimental or beneficial to survival and reproduction, with population - and community - level consequences. However, compared with well-documented changes following other forms of habitat modification, we know little about wildlife behavioural responses to tree plantations, and even less about their associated fitness costs. Here, we highlight critical knowledge gaps in understanding the ecological and evolutionary consequences of behavioural shifts caused by tree plantations and discuss how wildlife responses to plantations could be critical in determining which species persist in these highly modified environments.
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Ecological Infrastructures May Enhance Lepidopterans Predation in Irrigated Mediterranean Farmland, Depending on Their Typology and the Predator Guild. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14073874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Ecological infrastructures (EIs) are considered relevant components in agricultural landscapes to support biodiversity and ecosystem services. We used the predatory attacks on lepidopteran dummies as a proxy to assess predation rates in the agricultural matrix and different EIs types according to their location and vegetation structure. We aimed at comparing the effect of different types of EI on the predation intensity in two intensively irrigated agricultural areas located in the Sorraia and Tagus river valleys in central Portugal. We hypothesized that: (1) the predation rate would be higher near EIs compared with the agricultural matrix, (2) the positive effect of EIs on predation rate would differ with their typologies, and (3) the EIs’ proximity and proportion in the surrounding landscape would have a positive effect on the predation rate in agricultural fields. The EI typologies influenced differently the predator groups and the overall predation rate. Major differences were observed for bird predation, being higher in woody EIs. A positive correlation between predation rate and EIs area of the surrounding landscape, as well as a negative correlation with the distance to the nearest riparian and woody EIs, was observed for birds. The observed dissimilarities in the predators’ response may be related to habitat differences and its functional connectivity. The overall monthly low predation rates are possibly related to the intensive agricultural system and the small area occupied by EIs.
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Ferrante M, Möller D, Möller G, Menares E, Lubin Y, Segoli M. Invertebrate and vertebrate predation rates in a hyperarid ecosystem following an oil spill. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:12153-12160. [PMID: 34522367 PMCID: PMC8427564 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Extreme temperatures and scarce precipitation in deserts have led to abiotic factors often being regarded as more important than biotic ones in shaping desert communities. The presumed low biological activity of deserts is also one reason why deserts are often overlooked by conservation programs. We provide the first quantification of predation intensity from a desert ecosystem using artificial sentinel prey emulating caterpillars, a standardized monitoring tool to quantify relative predation pressure by many invertebrate and vertebrate predators. The study was conducted in a protected natural area affected by oil spills in 1975 and 2014; hence, we assessed the potential effects of oil pollution on predation rates. We found that predation was mostly due to invertebrate rather than vertebrate predators, fluctuated throughout the year, was higher at the ground level than in the tree canopy, and was not negatively affected by the oil spills. The mean predation rate per day (12.9%) was within the range found in other ecosystems, suggesting that biotic interactions in deserts ought not to be neglected and that ecologists should adopt standardized tools to track ecological functions and allow for comparisons among ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ferrante
- Mitrani Department of Desert EcologyBlaustein Institutes for Desert ResearchBen‐Gurion University of the NegevMidreshet Ben‐GurionIsrael
- Ce3C ‐ Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental ChangesAzorean Biodiversity GroupFaculty of Agricultural Sciences and EnvironmentUniversity of the AzoresAngra do HeroísmoPortugal
| | - Daniella Möller
- Mitrani Department of Desert EcologyBlaustein Institutes for Desert ResearchBen‐Gurion University of the NegevMidreshet Ben‐GurionIsrael
| | - Gabriella Möller
- Mitrani Department of Desert EcologyBlaustein Institutes for Desert ResearchBen‐Gurion University of the NegevMidreshet Ben‐GurionIsrael
| | - Esteban Menares
- Mitrani Department of Desert EcologyBlaustein Institutes for Desert ResearchBen‐Gurion University of the NegevMidreshet Ben‐GurionIsrael
- Department of EcologyBrandenburg University of Technology Cottbus‐SenftenbergCottbusGermany
| | - Yael Lubin
- Mitrani Department of Desert EcologyBlaustein Institutes for Desert ResearchBen‐Gurion University of the NegevMidreshet Ben‐GurionIsrael
| | - Michal Segoli
- Mitrani Department of Desert EcologyBlaustein Institutes for Desert ResearchBen‐Gurion University of the NegevMidreshet Ben‐GurionIsrael
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Khan FZA, Joseph SV. Influence of the Color, Shape, and Size of the Clay Model on Arthropod Interactions in Turfgrass. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2021; 21:6404557. [PMID: 34668976 PMCID: PMC8527575 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieab070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Many predatory arthropods occur naturally in turfgrass, and they provide adequate control of lepidopteran pests, such as fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Recording predation is challenging under field conditions because predators rarely leave any evidence. Clay models were successfully employed for studying predation, and this technique is underutilized in turfgrass. Little is known about whether the characteristics of clay models, such as color, shape, and size, influence arthropod interactions in turfgrass. To improve the utility of clay models in turfgrass, the influence of the color, shape, and size of clay models on arthropod interactions was studied by exposing clay models during daytime and nighttime in a turfgrass field. The results showed that arthropods interacted with clay models, and various types of impressions were recorded, including paired marks, scratches, cuts, and pricks. Although the color of the clay model had no significant effects on arthropod interactions during the night, significantly greater numbers of impressions were noticed on the blue and green models than on the yellow models during the daytime. The caterpillar-shaped models captured significantly greater densities of impressions than the beetle-shaped models. Additionally, the number of impressions significantly increased with an increase in the size of the model regardless of shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fawad Z A Khan
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA
| | - Shimat V Joseph
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA
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