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Godinho DP, Rodrigues LR, Lefèvre S, Magalhães S, Duncan AB. Coinfection accelerates transmission to new hosts despite no effects on virulence and parasite growth. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230139. [PMID: 38913066 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024] Open
Abstract
One of the fundamental aims of ecological, epidemiological and evolutionary studies of host-parasite interactions is to unravel which factors affect parasite virulence. Theory predicts that virulence and transmission are correlated by a trade-off, as too much virulence is expected to hamper transmission owing to excessive host damage. Coinfections may affect each of these traits and/or their correlation. Here, we used inbred lines of the spider mite Tetranychus urticae to test how coinfection with T. evansi impacted virulence-transmission relationships at different conspecific densities. The presence of T. evansi on a shared host did not change the relationship between virulence (leaf damage) and the number of transmitting stages (i.e. adult daughters). The relationship between these traits was hump-shaped across densities, both in single and coinfections, which corresponds to a trade-off. Moreover, transmission to adjacent hosts increased in coinfection, but only at low T. urticae densities. Finally, we tested whether virulence and the number of daughters were correlated with measures of transmission to adjacent hosts, in single and coinfections at different conspecific densities. Traits were mostly independent, meaning that interspecific competitors may increase transmission without affecting virulence. Thus, coinfections may impact epidemiology and parasite trait evolution, but not necessarily the virulence-transmission trade-off.This article is part of the theme issue 'Diversity-dependence of dispersal: interspecific interactions determine spatial dynamics'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo P Godinho
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences; CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
- Current address, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
| | - Leonor R Rodrigues
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences; CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sophie Lefèvre
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Sara Magalhães
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences; CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Alison B Duncan
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
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2
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Ravigné V, Rodrigues LR, Charlery de la Masselière M, Facon B, Kuczyński L, Radwan J, Skoracka A, Magalhães S. Understanding the joint evolution of dispersal and host specialisation using phytophagous arthropods as a model group. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:219-237. [PMID: 37724465 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Theory generally predicts that host specialisation and dispersal should evolve jointly. Indeed, many models predict that specialists should be poor dispersers to avoid landing on unsuitable hosts while generalists will have high dispersal abilities. Phytophagous arthropods are an excellent group to test this prediction, given extensive variation in their host range and dispersal abilities. Here, we explore the degree to which the empirical literature on this group is in accordance with theoretical predictions. We first briefly outline the theoretical reasons to expect such a correlation. We then report empirical studies that measured both dispersal and the degree of specialisation in phytophagous arthropods. We find a correlation between dispersal and levels of specialisation in some studies, but with wide variation in this result. We then review theoretical attributes of species and environment that may blur this correlation, namely environmental grain, temporal heterogeneity, habitat selection, genetic architecture, and coevolution between plants and herbivores. We argue that theoretical models fail to account for important aspects, such as phenotypic plasticity and the impact of selective forces stemming from other biotic interactions, on both dispersal and specialisation. Next, we review empirical caveats in the study of this interplay. We find that studies use different measures of both dispersal and specialisation, hampering comparisons. Moreover, several studies do not provide independent measures of these two traits. Finally, variation in these traits may occur at scales that are not being considered. We conclude that this correlation is likely not to be expected from large-scale comparative analyses as it is highly context dependent and should not be considered in isolation from the factors that modulate it, such as environmental scale and heterogeneity, intrinsic traits or biotic interactions. A stronger crosstalk between theoretical and empirical studies is needed to understand better the prevalence and basis of the correlation between dispersal and specialisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Ravigné
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, - PHIM, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, TA A-120/K, Campus international de Baillarguet, avenue du Campus d'Agropolis, Montpellier Cedex 5, 34398, France
| | - Leonor R Rodrigues
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Departamento Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, edifício C2, Lisboa, 1749-016, Portugal
| | - Maud Charlery de la Masselière
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Departamento Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, edifício C2, Lisboa, 1749-016, Portugal
| | - Benoît Facon
- CBGP, INRAE, IRD, CIRAD, Institut Agro, University of Montpellier, 755 avenue du Campus Agropolis, CS 34988, Montferrier sur Lez cedex, 30016, France
| | - Lechosław Kuczyński
- Population Ecology Lab, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland
| | - Jacek Radwan
- Evolutionary Biology Group, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland
| | - Anna Skoracka
- Population Ecology Lab, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland
| | - Sara Magalhães
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Departamento Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, edifício C2, Lisboa, 1749-016, Portugal
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3
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Teodoro-Paulo J, Alba JM, Charlesworth S, Kant MR, Magalhães S, Duncan AB. Intraspecific variation for host immune activation by the spider mite Tetranychus evansi. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230525. [PMID: 37325599 PMCID: PMC10265008 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Many parasites can interfere with their host's defences to maximize their fitness. Here, we investigated if there is heritable variation in the spider mite Tetranychus evansi for traits associated with how they interact with their host plant. We also determined if this variation correlates with mite fecundity. Tetranychus evansi can interfere with jasmonate (JA) defences which are the main determinant of anti-herbivore immunity in plants. We investigated (i) variation in fecundity in the presence and absence of JA defences, making use of a wild-type tomato cultivar and a JA-deficient mutant (defenseless-1), and (ii) variation in the induction of JA defences, in four T. evansi field populations and 59 inbred lines created from an outbred population originating from controlled crosses of the four field populations. We observed a strong positive genetic correlation between fecundity in the presence (on wild-type) and the absence of JA defences (on defenseless-1). However, fecundity did not correlate with the magnitude of induced JA defences in wild-type plants. Our results suggest that the performance of the specialist T. evansi is not related to their ability to manipulate plant defences, either because all lines can adequately reduce levels of defences, or because they are resistant to them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Teodoro-Paulo
- cE3c—Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Juan M. Alba
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Steven Charlesworth
- cE3c—Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Merijn R. Kant
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sara Magalhães
- cE3c—Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alison B. Duncan
- Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, University of Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
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Godinho DP, Rodrigues LR, Lefèvre S, Delteil L, Mira AF, Fragata IR, Magalhães S, Duncan AB. Limited host availability disrupts the genetic correlation between virulence and transmission. Evol Lett 2023; 7:58-66. [PMID: 37065437 PMCID: PMC10091498 DOI: 10.1093/evlett/qrac008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Virulence is expected to be linked to parasite fitness via transmission. However, it is not clear whether this relationship is genetically determined, nor if it differs when transmission occurs continuously during, or only at the end of, the infection period. Here, we used inbred lines of the macroparasitic spider mite Tetranychus urticae to disentangle genetic vs. nongenetic correlations among traits, while varying parasite density and opportunities for transmission. A positive genetic correlation between virulence and the number of transmitting stages produced was found under continuous transmission. However, if transmission occurred only at the end of the infection period, this genetic correlation disappeared. Instead, we observed a negative relationship between virulence and the number of transmitting stages, driven by density dependence. Thus, within-host density dependence caused by reduced opportunities for transmission may hamper selection for higher virulence, providing a novel explanation as to why limited host availability leads to lower virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo P Godinho
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Leonor R Rodrigues
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sophie Lefèvre
- Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - Laurane Delteil
- Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | - André F Mira
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês R Fragata
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sara Magalhães
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Alison B Duncan
- Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE, Montpellier, France
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5
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Sentis A, Hemptinne J, Magro A, Outreman Y. Biological control needs evolutionary perspectives of ecological interactions. Evol Appl 2022; 15:1537-1554. [PMID: 36330295 PMCID: PMC9624075 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
While ecological interactions have been identified as determinant for biological control efficiency, the role of evolution remains largely underestimated in biological control programs. With the restrictions on the use of both pesticides and exotic biological control agents (BCAs), the evolutionary optimization of local BCAs becomes central for improving the efficiency and the resilience of biological control. In particular, we need to better account for the natural processes of evolution to fully understand the interactions of pests and BCAs, including in biocontrol strategies integrating human manipulations of evolution (i.e., artificial selection and genetic engineering). In agroecosystems, the evolution of BCAs traits and performance depends on heritable phenotypic variation, trait genetic architecture, selection strength, stochastic processes, and other selective forces. Humans can manipulate these natural processes to increase the likelihood of evolutionary trait improvement, by artificially increasing heritable phenotypic variation, strengthening selection, controlling stochastic processes, or overpassing evolution through genetic engineering. We highlight these facets by reviewing recent studies addressing the importance of natural processes of evolution and human manipulations of these processes in biological control. We then discuss the interactions between the natural processes of evolution occurring in agroecosystems and affecting the artificially improved BCAs after their release. We emphasize that biological control cannot be summarized by interactions between species pairs because pests and biological control agents are entangled in diverse communities and are exposed to a multitude of deterministic and stochastic selective forces that can change rapidly in direction and intensity. We conclude that the combination of different evolutionary approaches can help optimize BCAs to remain efficient under changing environmental conditions and, ultimately, favor agroecosystem sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Sentis
- INRAEAix Marseille University, UMR RECOVERAix‐en‐ProvenceFrance
| | - Jean‐Louis Hemptinne
- Laboratoire Évolution et Diversité biologiqueUMR 5174 CNRS/UPS/IRDToulouseFrance
- Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi‐Pyrénées – ENSFEACastanet‐TolosanFrance
| | - Alexandra Magro
- Laboratoire Évolution et Diversité biologiqueUMR 5174 CNRS/UPS/IRDToulouseFrance
- Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi‐Pyrénées – ENSFEACastanet‐TolosanFrance
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6
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Fragata I, Costa-Pereira R, Kozak M, Majer A, Godoy O, Magalhães S. Specific sequence of arrival promotes coexistence via spatial niche pre-emption by the weak competitor. Ecol Lett 2022; 25:1629-1639. [PMID: 35596732 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Historical contingency, such as the order of species arrival, can modify competitive outcomes via niche modification or pre-emption. However, how these mechanisms ultimately modify stabilising niche and average fitness differences remains largely unknown. By experimentally assembling two congeneric spider mite species feeding on tomato plants during two generations, we show that order of arrival affects species' competitive ability and changes the outcome of competition. Contrary to expectations, order of arrival did not cause positive frequency dependent priority effects. Instead, coexistence was predicted when the inferior competitor (Tetranychus urticae) arrived first. In that case, T. urticae colonised the preferred feeding stratum (leaves) of T. evansi leading to spatial niche pre-emption, which equalised fitness and reduced niche differences, driving community assembly to a close-to-neutrality scenario. Our study demonstrates how the order of species arrival and the spatial context of competitive interactions may jointly determine whether species can coexist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Fragata
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Raul Costa-Pereira
- Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Mariya Kozak
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Agnieszka Majer
- Population Ecology Lab, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
| | - Oscar Godoy
- Department of Biology, Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - Sara Magalhães
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
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7
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Mira AF, Marques L, Magalhães S, Rodrigues LR. A Method to Measure the Damage Caused by Cell-Sucking Herbivores. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2022; 2494:299-312. [PMID: 35467216 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2297-1_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The damage that herbivores inflict on plants is a key component of their interaction. Several methods have been proposed to quantify the damage caused by chewing insects, but such methods are not very successful when the damage is inflicted by a cell-sucking organism. Here, we present a protocol that allows a non-destructive quantification of the damage inflicted by cell-sucking arthropods, robustly filtering out leaf vascular structures that might be mistakenly classified as damage in many plant species. The protocol is set for the laboratory environment and uses Fiji and ilastik, two free software packages.
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Affiliation(s)
- André F Mira
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Luís Marques
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.,Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sara Magalhães
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Leonor R Rodrigues
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
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8
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DeRaedt S, Bierman A, van Heusden P, Richards C, Christoffels A. microRNA profile of Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly) and its implications on mass rearing. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265492. [PMID: 35298540 PMCID: PMC8929568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing demands on protein producers and the dwindling available resources have made Hermetia illucens (the black soldier fly, BSF) an economically important species. Insights into the genome of this insect will better allow for robust breeding protocols, and more efficient production to be used as a replacement of animal feed protein. The use of microRNA as a method to understand how gene regulation allows insect species to adapt to changes in their environment, has been established in multiple species. The baseline and life stage expression levels established in this study, allow for insight into the development and sex-linked microRNA regulation in BSF. To accomplish this, microRNA was extracted and sequenced from 15 different libraries with each life stage in triplicate. Of the total 192 microRNAs found, 168 were orthologous to known arthropod microRNAs and 24 microRNAs were unique to BSF. Twenty-six of the 168 microRNAs conserved across arthropods had a statistically significant (p < 0.05) differential expression between Egg to Larval stages. The development from larva to pupa was characterized by 16 statistically significant differentially expressed microRNA. Seven and 9 microRNA were detected as statistically significant between pupa to adult female and pupa to adult male, respectively. All life stages had a nearly equal split between up and down regulated microRNAs. Ten of the unique 24 miRNA were detected exclusively in one life stage. The egg life stage expressed five microRNA (hil-miR-m, hil-miR-p, hil-miR-r, hil-miR-s, and hil-miR-u) not seen in any other life stages. The female adult and pupa life stages expressed one miRNA each hil-miR-h and hil-miR-ac respectively. Both male and female adult life stages expressed hil-miR-a, hil-miR-b, and hil-miR-y. There were no unique microRNAs found only in the larva stage. Twenty-two microRNAs with 56 experimentally validated target genes in the closely related Drosophila melanogaster were identified. Thus, the microRNA found display the unique evolution of BSF, along with the life stages and potential genes to target for robust mass rearing. Understanding of the microRNA expression in BSF will further their use in the crucial search for alternative and sustainable protein sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah DeRaedt
- South African National Bioinformatics Institute, South African Medical Research Council Bioinformatics Unit, The University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Anandi Bierman
- AgriProtein Technologies (Pty) Limited, Philippi, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Peter van Heusden
- South African National Bioinformatics Institute, South African Medical Research Council Bioinformatics Unit, The University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Cameron Richards
- AgriProtein Technologies (Pty) Limited, Philippi, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Alan Christoffels
- South African National Bioinformatics Institute, South African Medical Research Council Bioinformatics Unit, The University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Western Cape, South Africa
- * E-mail:
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9
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Rodrigues LR, Zélé F, Santos I, Magalhães S. No evidence for the evolution of mating behaviour in spider mites due to
Wolbachia
‐induced cytoplasmic incompatibility. Evolution 2022; 76:623-635. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.14429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leonor R. Rodrigues
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon Edifício C2, 3° piso Lisboa 1749‐016 Portugal
| | - Flore Zélé
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon Edifício C2, 3° piso Lisboa 1749‐016 Portugal
- Institute of Evolution Sciences (ISEM), University of Montpellier CNRS, IRD, EPHE Montpellier France
| | - Inês Santos
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon Edifício C2, 3° piso Lisboa 1749‐016 Portugal
| | - Sara Magalhães
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculty of Sciences University of Lisbon Edifício C2, 3° piso Lisboa 1749‐016 Portugal
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