Sweet tooth: Elephants detect fruit sugar levels based on scent alone

Biofluorometric Gas-Imaging System for Evaluating the Ripening Stages of "La France" Pear Based on Ethanol Vapor Emitted via the Epicarp

Fruits can emit ethanol, which is generated through fermentation during hypoxic storage. We imaged spatiotemporal changes in the gaseous ethanol emitted by "La France" pear via its epicarp. The gas-imaging system utilized enzymes to transduce the ethanol concentration into fluorescence intensity. Initially, the uniformity of the enzyme and coenzyme distribution was evaluated to validate the imaging capability. Subsequently, two surface-fitting methods were compared to accurately image ethanol emitted from three-dimensional (3D) objects with a double-curved surface. The imaging results of ethanol emitted from the pear indicated that the distribution of ethanol was related to lenticels, which have been reported to possess high ethanol diffusivity, on the epicarp. As quantified by the system (uniformity of coenzyme and enzymes was 93.2 and 98.8%, respectively; dynamic range was 0.01-100 ppm), ethanol concentration increased with the storage period under hypoxic conditions (0.4-5.3 ppm, from day 1 to 10). The system enables the observation of the location, quantity, and temporal pattern of ethanol release from fruit, which could be a useful technology for agricultural applications.

Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation

Despite popular culture's promotion of the elephant's ability to "never forget," there is remarkably limited empirical research on the memory capacities of any living elephant species (Asian, Elephas maximus; African savanna, Loxodonta africana; African forest, Loxodonta cyclotis). A growing body of literature on elephant cognition and behavioral ecology has provided insight into the elephant's ability to behave flexibly in changing physical and social environments, but little direct evidence of how memory might relate to this flexibility exists. In this paper, we review and discuss the potential relationships between what we know about elephant cognition and behavior and the elephants' memory for the world around them as they navigate their physical, social, and spatial environments. We also discuss future directions for investigating elephant memory and implications for such research on elephant conservation and human-elephant conflict mitigation.

Effects of temperature gradient on functional fruit traits: an elevation-for-temperature approach

Fruit traits mediate animal-plant interactions and have to a large degree evolved to match the sensory capacities and morphology of their respective dispersers. At the same time, fruit traits are affected by local environmental factors, which may affect frugivore-plant trait match. Temperature has been identified as a major factor with a strong effect on the development of fruits, which is of serious concern because of the rising threat of global warming. Nonetheless, this primarily originates from studies on domesticated cultivars in often controlled environments. Little is known on the effect of rising temperatures on fruit traits of wild species and the implications this could have to seed dispersal networks, including downstream consequences to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. In a case study of five plant species from eastern Madagascar, we addressed this using the elevation-for-temperature approach and examined whether a temperature gradient is systematically associated with variation in fruit traits relevant for animal foraging and fruit selection. We sampled across a gradient representing a temperature gradient of 1.5-2.6 °C, corresponding to IPCC projections. The results showed that in most cases there was no significant effect of temperature on the traits evaluated, although some species showed different effects, particularly fruit chemical profiles. This suggests that in these species warming within this range alone is not likely to drive substantial changes in dispersal networks. While no systemic effects were found, the results also indicate that the effect of temperature on fruit traits differs across species and may lead to mismatches in specific animal-plant interactions.

The marula and elephant intoxication myth: assessing the biodiversity of fermenting yeasts associated with marula fruits (Sclerocarya birrea)

The inebriation of wild African elephants from eating the ripened and rotting fruit of the marula tree is a persistent myth in Southern Africa. However, the yeasts responsible for alcoholic fermentation to intoxicate the elephants remain poorly documented. In this study, we considered Botswana, a country with the world's largest population of wild elephants, and where the marula tree is indigenous, abundant and protected, to assess the occurrence and biodiversity of yeasts with a potential to ferment and subsequently inebriate the wild elephants. We collected marula fruits from over a stretch of 800 km in Botswana and isolated 106 yeast strains representing 24 yeast species. Over 93% of these isolates, typically known to ferment simple sugars and produce ethanol comprising of high ethanol producers belonging to Saccharomyces, Brettanomyces, and Pichia, and intermediate ethanol producers Wickerhamomyces, Zygotorulaspora, Candida, Hanseniaspora, and Kluyveromyces. Fermentation of marula juice revealed convincing fermentative and aromatic bouquet credentials to suggest the potential to influence foraging behaviour and inebriate elephants in nature. There is insufficient evidence to refute the aforementioned myth. This work serves as the first work towards understanding the biodiversity marula associated yeasts to debunk the myth or approve the facts.

Variation in ripe fruit volatiles across the tomato clade: An evolutionary framework for studying fruit scent diversity in a crop wild relative

PREMISE

The scents of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are an important component of ripe fleshy fruit attractiveness, yet their variation across closely related wild species is poorly understood. Phylogenetic patterns in these compounds and their biosynthetic pathways offer insight into the evolutionary drivers of fruit diversity, including whether scent can communicate an honest signal of nutrient content to animal dispersers. We assessed ripe fruit VOC content across the tomato clade (Solanum sect. Lycopersicon), with implications for crop improvement since these compounds are key components of tomato flavor.

METHODS

We analyzed ripe fruit volatiles from 13 species of wild tomato grown in a common garden. Interspecific variations in 66 compounds and their biosynthetic pathways were assessed in 32 accessions, and an accession-level phylogeny was constructed to account for relatedness.

RESULTS

Wild tomato species can be differentiated by their VOCs, with Solanum pennellii notably distinct. Phylogenetic conservatism exists to a limited extent. Major cladewide patterns corresponded to divergence of the five brightly colored-fruited species from the nine green-fruited species, particularly for nitrogen-containing compounds (higher in colored-fruited) and esters (higher in green-fruited), the latter appearing to signal a sugar reward.

CONCLUSIONS

We established a framework for fruit scent evolution studies in a crop wild relative system, showing that each species in the tomato clade has a unique VOC profile. Differences between color groups align with fruit syndromes that could be driven by selection from frugivores. The evolution of colored fruits was accompanied by changes in biosynthetic pathways for esters and nitrogen-containing compounds, volatiles important to tomato flavor.

Seed dispersal syndrome predicts ethanol concentration of fruits in a tropical dry forest

Studying fruit traits and their interactions with seed dispersers can improve how we interpret patterns of biodiversity, ecosystem function and evolution. Mounting evidence suggests that fruit ethanol is common and variable, and may exert selective pressures on seed dispersers. To test this, we comprehensively assess fruit ethanol content in a wild ecosystem and explore sources of variation. We hypothesize that both phylogeny and seed dispersal syndrome explain variation in ethanol levels, and we predict that fruits with mammalian dispersal traits will contain higher levels of ethanol than those with bird dispersal traits. We measured ripe fruit ethanol content in species with mammal- (n = 16), bird- (n = 14) or mixed-dispersal (n = 7) syndromes in a Costa Rican tropical dry forest. Seventy-eight per cent of fruit species yielded measurable ethanol concentrations. We detected a phylogenetic signal in maximum ethanol levels (Pagel's λ = 0.82). Controlling for phylogeny, we observed greater ethanol concentrations in mammal-dispersed fruits, indicating that dispersal syndrome helps explain variation in ethanol content, and that mammals may be more exposed to ethanol in their diets than birds. Our findings further our understanding of wild fruit ethanol and its potential role as a selective pressure on frugivore sensory systems and metabolism.

Commentary: Aldehyde dehydrogenase, redox balance and exercise physiology: What is missing?

Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is a mitochondrial enzyme involved in reactive aldehyde detoxification. Approximately 560 million people (about 8% of the world's population) carry a point mutation in the aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 gene (ALDH2), identified as ALDH2*2, which leads to decreased ALDH2 catalytic activity. ALDH2*2 variant is associated with an accumulation of toxic reactive aldehydes and consequent disruption of cellular metabolism, which contributes to the establishment and progression of several degenerative diseases. Consequences of aldehyde accumulation include impaired mitochondrial functional, hindered anabolic signaling in the skeletal muscle, impaired cardiovascular and pulmonary function, and reduced osteoblastogenesis. Considering that aldehydes are endogenously produced through redox processes, it is expected that conditions that have a high energy demand, such as exercise, might be affected by impaired aldehyde clearance in ALDH2*2 individuals. Despite the large body of evidence supporting the importance of ALDH2 to ethanol metabolism, redox homeostasis and overall health, specific research investigating the impact of ALDH2*2 on phenotypes relevant to exercise performance are notoriously scarce. In this commentary, we highlight the consolidated knowledge on the impact of ALDH2*2 on physiological processes that are relevant to exercise.

The deterrent effects of individual monoterpene odours on the dietary decisions of African elephants

African savanna elephants use pre-ingestive olfactory cues when making dietary choices, and previous research has observed that elephant diet choice is negatively correlated with vegetation species that contain high concentrations of monoterpenes. However, the frequency and concentration of monoterpenes can vary dramatically across plant species. Thus, we aimed to explore the effects that the odours of individual monoterpenes have on elephant diet choice and how these effects vary with concentration. To do this, we conducted three odour-based choice experiments focusing on eight common monoterpenes found in the woody plants in Southern African savannas. In the first experiment, we tested whether elephant diet choice for a frequently consumed plant (Euclea crispa) was influenced by the addition of the odour of an individual monoterpene at a set concentration. In the second experiment, we explored the relative deterrence of each monoterpene. Lastly, we tested how elephant diet choice varied as a function of the addition of individual monoterpene odours at 5%, 10%, and 20% concentrations. We found that the elephants avoided most individual monoterpenes at high concentrations, with the exception being α-pinene. Furthermore, we found that the odours of some individual monoterpenes were, in fact, more deterrent than others. In the third experiment, we found that the elephants avoided β-pinene, limonene, ocimene, γ-terpinene, and terpinolene across all concentrations, but only avoided sabinene and linalool at high concentrations. Ultimately, our results show that the odour of individual monoterpenes may deter elephant consumption, but that this deterrent effect depends on both the monoterpene and its concentration.

The Promise of an Evolutionary Perspective of Alcohol Consumption

The urgent need for medical treatments of alcohol use disorders has motivated the search for novel molecular targets of alcohol response. Most studies exploit the strengths of lab animals without considering how these and other species may have adapted to respond to alcohol in an ecological context. Here, we provide an evolutionary perspective on the molecular and genetic underpinnings of alcohol consumption by reviewing evidence that alcohol metabolic enzymes have undergone adaptive evolution at 2 evolutionary junctures: first, to enable alcohol consumption accompanying the advent of a frugivorous diet in a primate ancestor, and second, to decrease the likelihood of excessive alcohol consumption concurrent with the spread of agriculture and fermentation in East Asia. By similarly considering how diverse vertebrate and invertebrate species have undergone natural selection for alcohol responses, novel conserved molecular targets of alcohol are likely be discovered that may represent promising therapeutic targets.

Fruit scent as an honest signal for fruit quality

BACKGROUND

Fleshy fruits evolved to be attractive to seed dispersers through various signals such as color and scent. Signals can evolve through different trajectories and have various degrees of reliability. The strongest substrate on which reliable signals can evolve is when there is an inherent link between signal and reward, rendering cheating costly or impossible. It was recently proposed that aliphatic esters in fruit scent may be predictive of sugar content due to their synthesis from products of sugar fermentation. We test this hypothesis on a case study of wild fig species (Ficus tiliifolia) from Madagascar, which relies on seed dispersal by lemurs.

RESULTS

We found a strong positive correlation between signal (esters) and reward (sugar). We also found that non-esters, including direct fermentation products, in fruit scent do not indicate sugar levels, which implies that this relationship is not simply a product of fruit maturation wherein more mature fruits emit more scent and contain more sugar.

CONCLUSIONS

While based on a single taxon, these results strongly support the hypothesis that a biochemical link between ester synthesis and sugar may render the ester fraction of fruit scent an honest signal for fruit quality, with consequences for animal sensory and feeding ecology, and the evolution of plants in the context of seed dispersal.

Anatomy and dietary specialization influence sensory behaviour among sympatric primates

Senses form the interface between animals and environments, and provide a window into the ecology of past and present species. However, research on sensory behaviours by wild frugivores is sparse. Here, we examine fruit assessment by three sympatric primates (Alouatta palliata, Ateles geoffroyi and Cebus imitator) to test the hypothesis that dietary and sensory specialization shape foraging behaviours. Ateles and Cebus groups are comprised of dichromats and trichromats, while all Alouatta are trichomats. We use anatomical proxies to examine smell, taste and manual touch, and opsin genotyping to assess colour vision. We find that the frugivorous spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) sniff fruits most often, omnivorous capuchins (Cebus imitator), the species with the highest manual dexterity, use manual touch most often, and that main olfactory bulb volume is a better predictor of sniffing behaviour than nasal turbinate surface area. We also identify an interaction between colour vision phenotype and use of other senses. Controlling for species, dichromats sniff and bite fruits more often than trichromats, and trichromats use manual touch to evaluate cryptic fruits more often than dichromats. Our findings reveal new relationships among dietary specialization, anatomical variation and foraging behaviour, and promote understanding of sensory system evolution.

Acknowledging the Relevance of Elephant Sensory Perception to Human–Elephant Conflict Mitigation

Simple Summary

Elephants have a unique sensory perspective of the world, using their complex olfactory and auditory systems to make foraging and social decisions. All three species of elephants are endangered and inhabit environments, which are being affected rapidly by human development. Anthropogenic disturbances can have significant effects on elephants’ abilities to perceive sensory information and communicate with one another, potentially further endangering their survival. Conflicts over high-quality resources also arise from the overlapping habitation of humans and elephants. While many different methods have been employed to reduce this conflict, we propose that elephants’ unique olfactory and acoustic sensory strengths be considered in future mitigation strategies to achieve coexistence.

Abstract

Elephants are well known for their socio-cognitive abilities and capacity for multi-modal sensory perception and communication. Their highly developed olfactory and acoustic senses provide them with a unique non-visual perspective of their physical and social worlds. The use of these complex sensory signals is important not only for communication between conspecifics, but also for decisions about foraging and navigation. These decisions have grown increasingly risky given the exponential increase in unpredictable anthropogenic change in elephants’ natural habitats. Risk taking often develops from the overlap of human and elephant habitat in Asian and African range countries, where elephants forage for food in human habitat and crop fields, leading to conflict over high-quality resources. To mitigate this conflict, a better understanding of the elephants’ sensory world and its impact on their decision-making process should be considered seriously in the development of long-term strategies for promoting coexistence between humans and elephants. In this review, we explore the elephants’ sensory systems for audition and olfaction, their multi-modal capacities for communication, and the anthropogenic changes that are affecting their behavior, as well as the need for greater consideration of elephant behavior in elephant conservation efforts.

Fruit secondary metabolites shape seed dispersal effectiveness

Plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) play a central role in seed dispersal and fruit defense, with potential for large impacts on plant fitness and demography. Yet because PSMs can have multiple interactive functions across seed dispersal stages, we must systematically study their effects to determine the net consequences for plant fitness. To tackle this issue, we integrate the role of fruit PSMs into the seed dispersal effectiveness (SDE) framework. We describe PSM effects on the quantity and quality of animal-mediated seed dispersal, both in pairwise interactions and diverse disperser communities, as well as trade-offs that occur across dispersal stages. By doing so, this review provides structure to a rapidly growing field and yields insights into a critical process shaping plant populations.

African elephants can detect water from natural and artificial sources via olfactory cues

Water is vital for mammals. Yet, as ephemeral sources can be difficult to find, it raises the question, how do mammals locate water? Elephants (Loxodonta africana) are water-dependent herbivores that possess exceptional olfactory capabilities, and it has been suggested that they may locate water via smell. However, there is no evidence to support this claim. To explore this, we performed two olfactory choice experiments with semi-tame elephants. In the first, we tested whether elephants could locate water using olfactory cues alone. For this, we used water from two natural dams and a drinking trough utilised by the elephants. Distilled water acted as a control. In the second, we explored whether elephants could detect three key volatile organic compounds (VOCs) commonly associated with water (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol, and dimethyl sulphide). We found that the elephants could locate water olfactorily, but not the distilled water. Moreover, they were also able to detect the three VOCs associated with water. However, these VOCs were not in the odour profiles of the water sources in our experiments. This suggests that the elephants were either able to detect the unique odour profiles of the different water sources or used other VOCs that they associate with water. Ultimately, our findings indicate that elephants can locate water olfactorily at small spatial scales, but the extent to which they, and other mammals, can detect water over larger scales (e.g. km) remains unclear.

The evolution of fruit scent: phylogenetic and developmental constraints

BACKGROUND

Fruit scent is increasingly recognized as an evolved signal whose function is to attract animal seed dispersers and facilitate plant reproduction. However, like all traits, fruit scent is likely to evolve in response to conflicting selective pressures and various constraints. Two major constraints are (i) phylogenetic constraints, in which traits are inherited from ancestors rather than adapted to current conditions and (ii) developmental constraints, if phenotypes are limited by the expression of other traits within the individual. We tested whether phylogenetic constraints play a role in fruit scent evolution by calculating the phylogenetic signal in ripe fruits of 98 species from three study sites. We then estimated the importance of developmental constraints by examining whether ripe fruits tend to emit compounds that are chemically similar to, and share biosynthetic pathways with, compounds emitted by conspecific unripe fruits from which they develop.

RESULTS

We show that closely related taxa are not more similar to each other than to very distinct taxa, thus indicating that fruit scent shows little phylogenetic signal. At the same time, although ripe and unripe fruits of the same species tend to emit different chemicals, they tend to employ chemicals originating from similar biosynthetic pathways, thus indicating that some developmental constraints determine ripe fruit scent.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight the complex landscape in which fruit scent has evolved. On one hand, fruit scent evolution is not limited by common ancestry. On the other hand, the range of chemicals that can be employed in ripe fruits is probably constrained by the needs of unripe fruits.