1
|
Hederström V, Ekroos J, Friberg M, Krausl T, Opedal ØH, Persson AS, Petrén H, Quan Y, Smith HG, Clough Y. Pollinator-mediated effects of landscape-scale land use on grassland plant community composition and ecosystem functioning - seven hypotheses. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:675-698. [PMID: 38118437 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Environmental change is disrupting mutualisms between organisms worldwide. Reported declines in insect populations and changes in pollinator community compositions in response to land use and other environmental drivers have put the spotlight on the need to conserve pollinators. While this is often motivated by their role in supporting crop yields, the role of pollinators for reproduction and resulting taxonomic and functional assembly in wild plant communities has received less attention. Recent findings suggest that observed and experimental gradients in pollinator availability can affect plant community composition, but we know little about when such shifts are to be expected, or the impact they have on ecosystem functioning. Correlations between plant traits related to pollination and plant traits related to other important ecosystem functions, such as productivity, nitrogen uptake or palatability to herbivores, lead us to expect non-random shifts in ecosystem functioning in response to changes in pollinator communities. At the same time, ecological and evolutionary processes may counteract these effects of pollinator declines, limiting changes in plant community composition, and in ecosystem functioning. Despite calls to investigate community- and ecosystem-level impacts of reduced pollination, the study of pollinator effects on plants has largely been confined to impacts on plant individuals or single-species populations. With this review we aim to break new ground by bringing together aspects of landscape ecology, ecological and evolutionary plant-insect interactions, and biodiversity-ecosystem functioning research, to generate new ideas and hypotheses about the ecosystem-level consequences of pollinator declines in response to land-use change, using grasslands as a focal system. Based on an integrated set of seven hypotheses, we call for more research investigating the putative pollinator-mediated links between landscape-scale land use and ecosystem functioning. In particular, future research should use combinations of experimental and observational approaches to assess the effects of changes in pollinator communities over multiple years and across species on plant communities and on trait distributions both within and among species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Hederström
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Johan Ekroos
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Magne Friberg
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Theresia Krausl
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Øystein H Opedal
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Anna S Persson
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Hampus Petrén
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Yuanyuan Quan
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Henrik G Smith
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| | - Yann Clough
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Silliman BR, Hensel MJS, Gibert JP, Daleo P, Smith CS, Wieczynski DJ, Angelini C, Paxton AB, Adler AM, Zhang YS, Altieri AH, Palmer TM, Jones HP, Gittman RK, Griffin JN, O'Connor MI, van de Koppel J, Poulsen JR, Rietkerk M, He Q, Bertness MD, van der Heide T, Valdez SR. Harnessing ecological theory to enhance ecosystem restoration. Curr Biol 2024; 34:R418-R434. [PMID: 38714175 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2024]
Abstract
Ecosystem restoration can increase the health and resilience of nature and humanity. As a result, the international community is championing habitat restoration as a primary solution to address the dual climate and biodiversity crises. Yet most ecosystem restoration efforts to date have underperformed, failed, or been burdened by high costs that prevent upscaling. To become a primary, scalable conservation strategy, restoration efficiency and success must increase dramatically. Here, we outline how integrating ten foundational ecological theories that have not previously received much attention - from hierarchical facilitation to macroecology - into ecosystem restoration planning and management can markedly enhance restoration success. We propose a simple, systematic approach to determining which theories best align with restoration goals and are most likely to bolster their success. Armed with a century of advances in ecological theory, restoration practitioners will be better positioned to more cost-efficiently and effectively rebuild the world's ecosystems and support the resilience of our natural resources.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Silliman
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA.
| | - Marc J S Hensel
- Biological Sciences Department, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA; Nature Coast Biological Station, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Cedar Key, FL 32625, USA
| | - Jean P Gibert
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Pedro Daleo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), FCEyN, UNMdP-CONICET, CC 1260 Correo Central, B7600WAG, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Carter S Smith
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | | | - Christine Angelini
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Avery B Paxton
- National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 101 Pivers Island Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | - Alyssa M Adler
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | - Y Stacy Zhang
- Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Andrew H Altieri
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Todd M Palmer
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Holly P Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences and Institute for the Study of the Environment, Sustainability, and Energy, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA
| | - Rachel K Gittman
- Department of Biology and Coastal Studies Institute, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - John N Griffin
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK
| | - Mary I O'Connor
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6R 1W4, Canada
| | - Johan van de Koppel
- Department of Estuarine and Delta Systems, NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Yerseke, The Netherlands; Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - John R Poulsen
- The Nature Conservancy, 2424 Spruce Street, Boulder, CO 80302, USA; Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, PO Box 90328, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Max Rietkerk
- Department Environmental Sciences, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Qiang He
- Coastal Ecology Lab, MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Mark D Bertness
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, 90 Witman Street, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Tjisse van der Heide
- Department of Coastal Systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), Den Burg, The Netherlands; Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie R Valdez
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Saldaña PH, Angelini C, Bertness MD, Altieri AH. Dead foundation species drive ecosystem dynamics. Trends Ecol Evol 2024; 39:294-305. [PMID: 37923644 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2023.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Foundation species facilitate communities, modulate energy flow, and define ecosystems, but their ecological roles after death are frequently overlooked. Here, we reveal the widespread importance of their dead structures as unique, interacting components of ecosystems that are vulnerable to global change. Key metabolic activity, mobility, and morphology traits of foundation species either change or persist after death with important consequences for ecosystem functions, biodiversity, and subsidy dynamics. Dead foundation species frequently mediate ecosystem stability, resilience, and transitions, often through feedbacks, and harnessing their structural and trophic roles can improve restoration outcomes. Enhanced recognition of dead foundation species and their incorporation into habitat monitoring, ecological theory, and ecosystem forecasting can help solve the escalating conservation challenges of the Anthropocene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick H Saldaña
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, Engineering School of Sustainable Infrastructure and Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Christine Angelini
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, Engineering School of Sustainable Infrastructure and Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Mark D Bertness
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Andrew H Altieri
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, Engineering School of Sustainable Infrastructure and Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zobel M, Koorem K, Moora M, Semchenko M, Davison J. Symbiont plasticity as a driver of plant success. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2024; 241:2340-2352. [PMID: 38308116 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
We discuss which plant species are likely to become winners, that is achieve the highest global abundance, in changing landscapes, and whether plant-associated microbes play a determining role. Reduction and fragmentation of natural habitats in historic landscapes have led to the emergence of patchy, hybrid landscapes, and novel landscapes where anthropogenic ecosystems prevail. In patchy landscapes, species with broad niches are favoured. Plasticity in the degree of association with symbiotic microbes may contribute to broader plant niches and optimization of symbiosis costs and benefits, by downregulating symbiosis when it is unnecessary and upregulating it when it is beneficial. Plasticity can also be expressed as the switch from one type of mutualism to another, for example from nutritive to defensive mutualism with increasing soil fertility and the associated increase in parasite load. Upon dispersal, wide mutualistic partner receptivity is another facet of symbiont plasticity that becomes beneficial, because plants are not limited by the availability of specialist partners when arriving at new locations. Thus, under conditions of global change, symbiont plasticity allows plants to optimize the activity of mutualistic relationships, potentially allowing them to become winners by maximizing geographic occupancy and local abundance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Zobel
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, Tartu, 50409, Estonia
| | - Kadri Koorem
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, Tartu, 50409, Estonia
| | - Mari Moora
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, Tartu, 50409, Estonia
| | - Marina Semchenko
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, Tartu, 50409, Estonia
| | - John Davison
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, Tartu, 50409, Estonia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Temmink RJM, Angelini C, Verkuijl M, van der Heide T. Restoration ecology meets design-engineering: Mimicking emergent traits to restore feedback-driven ecosystems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 902:166460. [PMID: 37611724 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Ecosystems shaped by habitat-modifying organisms such as reefs, vegetated coastal systems and peatlands, provide valuable ecosystem services, such as carbon storage and coastal protection. However, they are declining worldwide. Ecosystem restoration is a key tool for mitigating these losses but has proven failure-prone, because ecosystem stability often hinges on self-facilitation generated by emergent traits from habitat modifiers. Emergent traits are not expressed by the single individual, but emerge at the level of an aggregation: a minimum patch-size or density-threshold must be exceeded to generate self-facilitation. Self-facilitation has been successfully harnessed for restoration by clumping transplanted organisms, but requires large amounts of often-limiting and costly donor material. Recent advancements highlight that kickstarting self-facilitation by mimicking emergent traits can similarly increase restoration success. Here, we provide a framework for combining expertise from ecologists, engineers and industrial product designers to transition from trial-and-error to emergent trait design-based, cost-efficient approaches to support large-scale restoration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralph J M Temmink
- Environmental Sciences, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Christine Angelini
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, Engineering School for Sustainable Infrastructure and Environment, University of Florida, PO Box 116580, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Martijn Verkuijl
- Department of Industrial Design Engineering, Windesheim University of Applied Sciences, Koestraat 3, 8011NG Zwolle, the Netherlands
| | - Tjisse van der Heide
- Department of Coastal Systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, 1790 AB Den Burg, the Netherlands; Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, 9700 CC Groningen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Monserrat M, Comeau S, Verdura J, Alliouane S, Spennato G, Priouzeau F, Romero G, Mangialajo L. Climate change and species facilitation affect the recruitment of macroalgal marine forests. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18103. [PMID: 36302874 PMCID: PMC9613703 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22845-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine forests are shrinking globally due to several anthropogenic impacts including climate change. Forest-forming macroalgae, such as Cystoseira s.l. species, can be particularly sensitive to environmental conditions (e.g. temperature increase, pollution or sedimentation), especially during early life stages. However, not much is known about their response to the interactive effects of ocean warming (OW) and acidification (OA). These drivers can also affect the performance and survival of crustose coralline algae, which are associated understory species likely playing a role in the recruitment of later successional species such as forest-forming macroalgae. We tested the interactive effects of elevated temperature, low pH and species facilitation on the recruitment of Cystoseira compressa. We demonstrate that the interactive effects of OW and OA negatively affect the recruitment of C. compressa and its associated coralline algae Neogoniolithon brassica-florida. The density of recruits was lower under the combinations OW and OA, while the size was negatively affected by the temperature increase but positively affected by the low pH. The results from this study show that the interactive effects of climate change and the presence of crustose coralline algae can have a negative impact on the recruitment of Cystoseira s.l. species. While new restoration techniques recently opened the door to marine forest restoration, our results show that the interactions of multiple drivers and species interactions have to be considered to achieve long-term population sustainability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margalida Monserrat
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ECOSEAS, Nice, France.
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France.
| | - Steeve Comeau
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Jana Verdura
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ECOSEAS, Nice, France
| | - Samir Alliouane
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire d'Océanographie de Villefranche, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Männer L, Mundinger C, Haase M. Stay in shape: Assessing the adaptive potential of shell morphology and its sensitivity to temperature in the invasive New Zealand mud snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum through phenotypic plasticity and natural selection in Europe. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9314. [PMID: 36203624 PMCID: PMC9526036 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change may force organisms to adapt genetically or plastically to new environmental conditions. Invasive species show remarkable potential for rapid adaptation. The ovoviviparous New Zealand mud snail (NZMS), Potamopyrgus antipodarum, has successfully established across Europe with two clonally reproducing mitochondrial lineages since its arrival in the first half of the 19th century. Its remarkable variation in shell morphology was shown to be fitness relevant. We investigated the effects of temperature on shell morphology across 11 populations from Germany and the Iberian Peninsula in a common garden across three temperatures. We analyzed size and shape using geometric morphometrics. For both, we compared reaction norms and estimated heritabilities. For size, the interaction of temperature and haplotype explained about 50% of the total variance. We also observed more genotype by environment interactions indicating a higher degree of population differentiation than in shape. Across the three temperatures, size followed the expectations of the temperature-size rule, with individuals growing larger in cold environments. Changes in shape may have compensated for changes in size affecting space for brooding embryos. Heritability estimates were relatively high. As indicated by the very low coefficients of variation for clonal repeatability (CV A ), they can probably not be compared in absolute terms. However, they showed some sensitivity to temperature, in haplotype t more so than in z, which was only found in Portugal. The low CV A values indicate that genetic variation among European populations is still restricted with a low potential to react to selection. A considerable fraction of the genetic variation was due to differences between the clonal lineages. The NZMS has apparently not been long enough in Europe to accumulate significant genetic variation relevant for morphological adaptation. As temperature is obviously not the sole factor influencing shell morphology, their interaction will probably not be a factor limiting population persistence under a warming climate in Europe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Männer
- AG Vogelwarte, Zoological Institute and MuseumUniversity of GreifswaldGreifswaldGermany
| | - Carolin Mundinger
- AG Applied Zoology and Nature Conservation, Zoological Institute and MuseumUniversity of GreifswaldGreifswaldGermany
| | - Martin Haase
- AG Vogelwarte, Zoological Institute and MuseumUniversity of GreifswaldGreifswaldGermany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kim DY, Shinde SK, Kadam AA, Saratale RG, Saratale GD, Kumar M, Syed A, Bahkali AH, Ghodake GS. Advantage of Species Diversification to Facilitate Sustainable Development of Aquaculture Sector. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:368. [PMID: 35336742 PMCID: PMC8945328 DOI: 10.3390/biology11030368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Intensified agrochemical-based monoculture systems worldwide are under adoption to meet the challenge of human population growth and the ever-growing global demand for food. However, this path has been opposed and criticized because it involves overexploitation of land, monoculture of few species, excessive input of agrochemicals, and adverse impacts on human health and the environment. The wide diversity among polyculture systems practiced across the globe has created confusion over the priority of a single strategy towards sustainable aquaculture development and safer products. Herein, we highlight the significance of polyculture and integrated aquaculture practices in conveying the successful transition of the aquaculture industry towards sustainable development. So far, the established thought is that the precise selection of aquatic species and a focus on compatible and complementary species combinations are supposed to facilitate rapid progress in food production with more profitability and sustainability. Therefore, the advantages of species diversification are discussed from an ecological perspective to enforce aquaculture expansion. This account asserts that a diverse range of aquaculture practices can promote synergies among farmed species, enhance system resilience, enable conservation, decrease ecological footprints, and provide social benefits such as diversified income and local food security.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dae-Young Kim
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea; (D.-Y.K.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Surendra Krushna Shinde
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea; (D.-Y.K.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Avinash Ashok Kadam
- Research Institute of Biotechnology and Medical Converged Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea; (A.A.K.); (R.G.S.)
| | - Rijuta Ganesh Saratale
- Research Institute of Biotechnology and Medical Converged Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea; (A.A.K.); (R.G.S.)
| | - Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea;
| | - Manu Kumar
- Department of Life Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea;
| | - Asad Syed
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.S.); (A.H.B.)
| | - Ali H. Bahkali
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.S.); (A.H.B.)
| | - Gajanan Sampatrao Ghodake
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Gyeonggi-do, Korea; (D.-Y.K.); (S.K.S.)
| |
Collapse
|