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Katsipoulaki M, Stappers MHT, Malavia-Jones D, Brunke S, Hube B, Gow NAR. Candida albicans and Candida glabrata: global priority pathogens. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2024; 88:e0002123. [PMID: 38832801 PMCID: PMC11332356 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00021-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYA significant increase in the incidence of Candida-mediated infections has been observed in the last decade, mainly due to rising numbers of susceptible individuals. Recently, the World Health Organization published its first fungal pathogen priority list, with Candida species listed in medium, high, and critical priority categories. This review is a synthesis of information and recent advances in our understanding of two of these species-Candida albicans and Candida glabrata. Of these, C. albicans is the most common cause of candidemia around the world and is categorized as a critical priority pathogen. C. glabrata is considered a high-priority pathogen and has become an increasingly important cause of candidemia in recent years. It is now the second most common causative agent of candidemia in many geographical regions. Despite their differences and phylogenetic divergence, they are successful as pathogens and commensals of humans. Both species can cause a broad variety of infections, ranging from superficial to potentially lethal systemic infections. While they share similarities in certain infection strategies, including tissue adhesion and invasion, they differ significantly in key aspects of their biology, interaction with immune cells, host damage strategies, and metabolic adaptations. Here we provide insights on key aspects of their biology, epidemiology, commensal and pathogenic lifestyles, interactions with the immune system, and antifungal resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrto Katsipoulaki
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Mark H. T. Stappers
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Dhara Malavia-Jones
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Sascha Brunke
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Neil A. R. Gow
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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Ya X, Li H, Ge P, Xu Y, Liu Z, Zheng Z, Mou S, Liu C, Zhang Y, Wang R, Zhang Q, Ye X, Wang W, Zhang D, Zhao J. Single-Cell Atlas of Atherosclerosis Patients by Cytof: Circulatory and Local Immune Disorders. Aging Dis 2024; 15:245-258. [PMID: 37307820 PMCID: PMC10796097 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2023.0426-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis (AS) is a common underlying pathology of coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and stroke. The characteristics of immune cells within plaques and their functional relationships with blood are crucial in AS. In this study, Mass cytometry (CyTOF), RNA-sequencing and immunofluorescence were combined to comprehensively analyze plaque tissues and peripheral blood from 25 AS patients (22 for Mass cytometry and 3 for RNA-sequencing), as well as blood from 20 healthy individuals. The study identified a complexity of leukocytes in the plaque, including both defined anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory subsets such as M2-like CD163+ macrophages, Natural killer T cells (NKT), CD11b+ CD4+ T effector memory cells (Tem), and CD8+ terminally differentiated effector memory cells (TEMRA). Functionally activated cell subsets were also found in peripheral blood in AS patients, highlighting the vivid interactions between leukocytes in plaque and blood. The study provides an atlas of the immune landscape in atherosclerotic patients, where pro-inflammatory activation was found to be a major feature of peripheral blood. The study identified NKT, CD11b+ CD4+ Tem, CD8+ TEMRA and CD163+ macrophages as key players in the local immune environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Ya
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Hao Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Peicong Ge
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Yiqiao Xu
- Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Zechen Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, USA.
| | - Zhiyao Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China.
| | - Siqi Mou
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Chenglong Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Rong Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Xun Ye
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Wenjing Wang
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing YouAn Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Dong Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing YouAn Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Jizong Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Beijing YouAn Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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Cruz MS, Loureiro JP, Oliveira MJ, Macedo MF. The iNKT Cell-Macrophage Axis in Homeostasis and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031640. [PMID: 35163561 PMCID: PMC8835952 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are CD1d-restricted, lipid-reactive T cells that exhibit preponderant immunomodulatory properties. The ultimate protective or deleterious functions displayed by iNKT cells in tissues are known to be partially shaped by the interactions they establish with other immune cells. In particular, the iNKT cell–macrophage crosstalk has gained growing interest over the past two decades. Accumulating evidence has highlighted that this immune axis plays central roles not only in maintaining homeostasis but also during the development of several pathologies. Hence, this review summarizes the reported features of the iNKT cell–macrophage axis in health and disease. We discuss the pathophysiological significance of this interplay and provide an overview of how both cells communicate with each other to regulate disease onset and progression in the context of infection, obesity, sterile inflammation, cancer and autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana S. Cruz
- Cell Activation and Gene Expression Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (M.S.C.); (J.P.L.)
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro (UA), 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - José Pedro Loureiro
- Cell Activation and Gene Expression Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (M.S.C.); (J.P.L.)
- Experimental Immunology Group, Department of Biomedicine (DBM), University of Basel and University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 20, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maria J. Oliveira
- Tumour and Microenvironment Interactions Group, Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Biomédica (INEB), Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal;
- Department of Molecular Biology, ICBAS-Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria Fatima Macedo
- Cell Activation and Gene Expression Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (M.S.C.); (J.P.L.)
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro (UA), 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Dunne MR, Wagener J, Loeffler J, Doherty DG, Rogers TR. Unconventional T cells - New players in antifungal immunity. Clin Immunol 2021; 227:108734. [PMID: 33895356 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2021.108734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Life-threatening invasive fungal diseases (IFD) are increasing in incidence, especially in immunocompromised patients and successful resolution of IFD requires a variety of different immune cells. With the limited repertoire of available antifungal drugs there is a need for more effective therapeutic strategies. This review interrogates the evidence on the human immune response to the main pathogens driving IFD, with a focus on the role of unconventional lymphocytes e.g. natural killer (NK) cells, gamma/delta (γδ) T cells, mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells and innate lymphoid cells (ILC). Recent discoveries and new insights into the roles of these novel lymphocyte groups in antifungal immunity will be discussed, and we will explore how an improved understanding of antifungal action by lymphocytes can inform efforts to improve antifungal treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret R Dunne
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Sir Patrick Dun Research Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland.
| | - Johannes Wagener
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Sir Patrick Dun Research Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Juergen Loeffler
- Department of Internal Medicine II, WÜ4i, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Derek G Doherty
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Thomas R Rogers
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Sir Patrick Dun Research Laboratory, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
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Gálvez NMS, Bohmwald K, Pacheco GA, Andrade CA, Carreño LJ, Kalergis AM. Type I Natural Killer T Cells as Key Regulators of the Immune Response to Infectious Diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev 2021; 34:e00232-20. [PMID: 33361143 PMCID: PMC7950362 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00232-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system must work in an orchestrated way to achieve an optimal response upon detection of antigens. The cells comprising the immune response are traditionally divided into two major subsets, innate and adaptive, with particular characteristics for each type. Type I natural killer T (iNKT) cells are defined as innate-like T cells sharing features with both traditional adaptive and innate cells, such as the expression of an invariant T cell receptor (TCR) and several NK receptors. The invariant TCR in iNKT cells interacts with CD1d, a major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I)-like molecule. CD1d can bind and present antigens of lipid nature and induce the activation of iNKT cells, leading to the secretion of various cytokines, such as gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and interleukin 4 (IL-4). These cytokines will aid in the activation of other immune cells following stimulation of iNKT cells. Several molecules with the capacity to bind to CD1d have been discovered, including α-galactosylceramide. Likewise, several molecules have been synthesized that are capable of polarizing iNKT cells into different profiles, either pro- or anti-inflammatory. This versatility allows NKT cells to either aid or impair the clearance of pathogens or to even control or increase the symptoms associated with pathogenic infections. Such diverse contributions of NKT cells to infectious diseases are supported by several publications showing either a beneficial or detrimental role of these cells during diseases. In this article, we discuss current data relative to iNKT cells and their features, with an emphasis on their driving role in diseases produced by pathogenic agents in an organ-oriented fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás M S Gálvez
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Karen Bohmwald
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gaspar A Pacheco
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Catalina A Andrade
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Leandro J Carreño
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Programa de Inmunología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Immune defence to invasive fungal infections: A comprehensive review. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 130:110550. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Li M, Li C, Wu X, Chen T, Ren L, Xu B, Cao J. Microbiota-driven interleukin-17 production provides immune protection against invasive candidiasis. CRITICAL CARE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CRITICAL CARE FORUM 2020; 24:268. [PMID: 32460890 PMCID: PMC7251893 DOI: 10.1186/s13054-020-02977-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Background The intestinal microbiota plays a crucial role in human health, which could affect host immunity and the susceptibility to infectious diseases. However, the role of intestinal microbiota in the immunopathology of invasive candidiasis remains unknown. Methods In this work, an antibiotic cocktail was used to eliminate the intestinal microbiota of conventional-housed (CNV) C57/BL6 mice, and then both antibiotic-treated (ABX) mice and CNV mice were intravenously infected with Candida albicans to investigate their differential responses to infection. Furthermore, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was applied to ABX mice in order to assess its effects on host immunity against invasive candidiasis after restoring the intestinal microbiota, and 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing was conducted on fecal samples from both uninfected ABX and CNV group of mice to analyze their microbiomes. Results We found that ABX mice displayed significantly increased weight loss, mortality, and organ damage during invasive candidiasis when compared with CNV mice, which could be alleviated by FMT. In addition, the level of IL-17A in ABX mice was significantly lower than that in the CNV group during invasive candidiasis. Treatment with recombinant IL-17A could improve the survival of ABX mice during invasive candidiasis. Besides, the microbial diversity of ABX mice was significantly reduced, and the intestinal microbiota structure of ABX mice was significantly deviated from the CNV mice. Conclusions Our data revealed that intestinal microbiota plays a protective role in invasive candidiasis by enhancing IL-17A production in our model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Friendship Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Congya Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (Gener Hospital), No.1 Shuanghu Branch Road, Yubei District, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Xianan Wu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Friendship Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Tangtian Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Friendship Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Lei Ren
- Medical Examination Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Banglao Xu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Ju Cao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No.1 Friendship Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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Kinjo Y, Takatsuka S, Kitano N, Kawakubo S, Abe M, Ueno K, Miyazaki Y. Functions of CD1d-Restricted Invariant Natural Killer T Cells in Antimicrobial Immunity and Potential Applications for Infection Control. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1266. [PMID: 29928278 PMCID: PMC5997780 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
CD1d-restricted invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are innate-type lymphocytes that express a T-cell receptor (TCR) containing an invariant α chain encoded by the Vα14 gene in mice and Vα24 gene in humans. These iNKT cells recognize endogenous, microbial, and synthetic glycolipid antigens presented by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like molecule CD1d. Upon TCR stimulation by glycolipid antigens, iNKT cells rapidly produce large amounts of cytokines, including interferon-γ (IFNγ) and interleukin-4 (IL-4). Activated iNKT cells contribute to host protection against a broad spectrum of microbial pathogens, and glycolipid-mediated stimulation of iNKT cells ameliorates many microbial infections by augmenting innate and acquired immunity. In some cases, however, antigen-activated iNKT cells exacerbate microbial infections by promoting pathogenic inflammation. Therefore, it is important to identify appropriate microbial targets for the application of iNKT cell activation as a treatment or vaccine adjuvant. Many studies have found that iNKT cell activation induces potent adjuvant activities promoting protective vaccine effects. In this review, we summarize the functions of CD1d-restricted iNKT cells in immune responses against microbial pathogens and describe the potential applications of glycolipid-mediated iNKT cell activation for preventing and controlling microbial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kinjo
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shogo Takatsuka
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoki Kitano
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shun Kawakubo
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Abe
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keigo Ueno
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshitsugu Miyazaki
- Department of Chemotherapy and Mycoses, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
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Patin EC, Orr SJ, Schaible UE. Macrophage Inducible C-Type Lectin As a Multifunctional Player in Immunity. Front Immunol 2017; 8:861. [PMID: 28791019 PMCID: PMC5525440 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The macrophage-inducible C-type lectin (Mincle) is an innate immune receptor on myeloid cells sensing diverse entities including pathogens and damaged cells. Mincle was first described as a receptor for the mycobacterial cell wall glycolipid, trehalose-6,6′-dimycolate, or cord factor, and the mammalian necrotic cell-derived alarmin histone deacetylase complex unit Sin3-associated protein 130. Upon engagement by its ligands, Mincle induces secretion of innate cytokines and other immune mediators modulating inflammation and immunity. Since its discovery more than 25 years ago, the understanding of Mincle’s immune function has made significant advances in recent years. In addition to mediating immune responses to infectious agents, Mincle has been linked to promote tumor progression, autoimmunity, and sterile inflammation; however, further studies are required to completely unravel the complex role of Mincle in these distinct host responses. In this review, we discuss recent findings on Mincle’s biology with an emphasis on its diverse functions in immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel C Patin
- Priority Area Infections, Department Cellular Microbiology, Forschungszentrum Borstel, and German Center for Infection Research, TTU-TB, Borstel, Germany.,Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Selinda Jane Orr
- Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Ulrich E Schaible
- Priority Area Infections, Department Cellular Microbiology, Forschungszentrum Borstel, and German Center for Infection Research, TTU-TB, Borstel, Germany
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