Strategic Synthesis of 'Picket Fence' Porphyrins Based on Nonplanar Macrocycles

Porphyrin Atropisomerism as a Molecular Engineering Tool in Medicinal Chemistry, Molecular Recognition, Supramolecular Assembly, and Catalysis

Porphyrin atropisomerism, which arises from restricted σ-bond rotation between the macrocycle and a sufficiently bulky substituent, was identified in 1969 by Gottwald and Ullman in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(o-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrins. Henceforth, an entirely new field has emerged utilizing this transformative tool. This review strives to explain the consequences of atropisomerism in porphyrins, the methods which have been developed for their separation and analysis and present the diverse array of applications. Porphyrins alone possess intriguing properties and a structure which can be easily decorated and molded for a specific function. Therefore, atropisomerism serves as a transformative tool, making it possible to obtain even a specific molecular shape. Atropisomerism has been thoroughly exploited in catalysis and molecular recognition yet presents both challenges and opportunities in medicinal chemistry.

Current perspectives of artificial oxygen carriers as red blood cell substitutes: a review of old to cutting-edge technologies using in vitro and in vivo assessments

Background

Several circumstances such as accidents, surgery, traumatic hemorrhagic shock, and other causalities cause major blood loss. Allogenic blood transfusion can be resuscitative for such conditions; however, it has numerous ambivalent effects, including supply shortage, needs for more time, cost for blood grouping, the possibility of spreading an infection, and short shelf-life. Hypoxia or ischemia causes heart failure, neurological problems, and organ damage in many patients. To address this emergent medical need for resuscitation and to treat hypoxic conditions as well as to enhance oxygen transportation, researchers aspire to achieve a robust technology aimed to develop safe and feasible red blood cell substitutes for effective oxygen transport.

Area covered

This review article provides an overview of the formulation, storage, shelf-life, clinical application, side effects, and current perspectives of artificial oxygen carriers (AOCs) as red blood cell substitutes. Moreover, the pre-clinical (in vitro and in vivo) assessments for the evaluation of the efficacy and safety of oxygen transport through AOCs are key considerations in this study. With the most significant technologies, hemoglobin- and perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers as well as other modern technologies, such as synthetically produced porphyrin-based AOCs and oxygen-carrying micro/nanobubbles, have also been elucidated.

Expert opinion

Both hemoglobin- and perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers are significant, despite having the latter acting as safeguards; they are cost-effective, facile formulations which penetrate small blood vessels and remove arterial blockages due to their nano-size. They also show better biocompatibility and longer half-life circulation than other similar technologies.

Nonplanar porphyrins: synthesis, properties, and unique functionalities

Porphyrins are variously substituted tetrapyrrolic macrocycles, with wide-ranging biological and chemical applications derived from metal chelation in the core and the 18π aromatic surface. Under suitable conditions, the porphyrin framework can deform significantly from regular planar shape, owing to steric overload on the porphyrin periphery or steric repulsion in the core, among other structure modulation strategies. Adopting this nonplanar porphyrin architecture allows guest molecules to interact directly with an exposed core, with guest-responsive and photoactive electronic states of the porphyrin allowing energy, information, atom and electron transfer within and between these species. This functionality can be incorporated and tuned by decoration of functional groups and electronic modifications, with individual deformation profiles adapted to specific key sensing and catalysis applications. Nonplanar porphyrins are assisting breakthroughs in molecular recognition, organo- and photoredox catalysis; simultaneously bio-inspired and distinctly synthetic, these molecules offer a new dimension in shape-responsive host-guest chemistry. In this review, we have summarized the synthetic methods and design aspects of nonplanar porphyrin formation, key properties, structure and functionality of the nonplanar aromatic framework, and the scope and utility of this emerging class towards outstanding scientific, industrial and environmental issues.

Importance of molecular symmetry for enantiomeric excess recognition by NMR

Recently prochiral solvating agents (pro-CSA) came under the spotlight for the detection of enantiopurity by NMR. Chemical shift non-equivalency in achiral hosts introduced by the presence of chiral guests yields observable resonance signal splitting (Δδ) correlating to the enantiomeric excess (e.e.). In this work, symmetry is our lens to explain porphyrin-based supramolecular receptor activity in a chiral environment. Based on extensive NMR analyses of the atropisomeric receptors, the host symmetry is shown to be affected by porphyrin nonplanarity and further desymmetrized in the presence of a chiral guest. As such, the exposed porphyrin inner core (N-H), with its strong hydrogen bond abilities, for the first time, has been exploited in enantiomeric composition analysis. Our approach in e.e. detection by N-H signals appearing in a previously underutilized region of the spectrum (below 0 ppm) shows chemical shift splitting (Δδ) three times more sensitive to enantiomeric compositions than previously reported systems.

Steric Repulsion Induced Conformational Switch in Supramolecular Structures

Inspired by the rigidified architecture of ‘picket‐fence’ systems, we propose a strategy utilizing strain to impose intramolecular tension in already peripherally overcrowded structures leading to selective atropisomeric conversion. Employing this approach, tuneable shape‐persistent porphyrin conformations were acquired exhibiting distinctive supramolecular nanostructures based on the orientation of the peripheral groups. The intrinsic assemblies driven by non‐covalent bonding interactions form supramolecular polymers while encapsulating small molecules in parallel channels or solvent‐accessible voids. The developed molecular strain engineering methodologies combined with synthetic approaches have allowed the introduction of the pivalate units creating a highly strained molecular skeleton. Changes in the absorption spectrum indicated the presence of severe steric repulsions between the peripheral groups which were confirmed by single crystal X‐ray analysis. To release the steric strain introduced by the peripheral units, thermal equilibration strategies were used to selectively convert the most abundant atropisomer to the desirable minor one.