Free-flow biomolecular concentration and separation of proteins and nucleic acids using teíchophoresis

The ability to preconcentrate, separate, and purify biomolecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, is an important requirement for the next generation of portable diagnostic tools for environmental monitoring and disease detection. Traditionally, such pretreatment has been accomplished using large, centralized liquid- or solid-phase extraction equipment, which can be time-consuming and requires many processing steps. Here, we present a newly developed electrokinetic concentration technique, teíchophoresis (TPE), to concentrate and separate proteins, and to concentrate nucleic acids. In TPE, a free-flowing sample is exposed to a perpendicular electric field in the vicinity of a mass-impermeable conductive wall and a conductive terminating electrolyte (TE), which creates a high electric field strength zone between the lower mobility sample and the no-flux barrier. Unlike a similar electrokinetic concentration method, isotachophoresis (ITP), TPE does not require a leading electrolyte (LE), yet still enables a continuous field-driven electrophoretic ion migration across the channel and a free-flowing biomolecular concentration at the conductive wall. Here, we demonstrate the use of free-flow TPE (FFTPE) to manipulate biomolecular samples containing proteins or nucleic acids. We first use TPE to drive a 6.6-fold concentration increase of avidin-FITC, and also demonstrate protein separation and stacking between ovalbumin-fluorescein and BSA-AlexaFluor 555, both without the use of a conventional LE. Further, we utilize TPE to perform a 21-fold concentration increase of nucleic acids. Our results show that TPE is biocompatible with both proteins and nucleic acids, requires only 10 V DC, produces no significant sample pH changes during operation, and demonstrates that this method can be used as an effective sample pretreatment to prepare biological samples for downstream analysis in a continuous free-flowing microfluidic channel.

Continuous Molecular Concentration and Separation Using Pulsed-Field Conductive-Wall Single-Buffer Teı́chophoresis

We present an experimental study of a novel continuous electrokinetic molecular concentration and separation technique termed teı́chophoresis (TPE). We demonstrate here that TPE can serve as a potential alternative to the electrokinetic method isotachophoresis (ITP). In ITP, an electric field serves to focus charged species between a low-mobility terminating electrolyte (TE) and a high-mobility leading electrolyte (LE). Similarly, TPE serves to focus charged species between a low-mobility TE; however, the LE is conveniently replaced with a no-flux boundary generated by a conductive wall. The electric field can still penetrate this no-flux region due to the wall's finite conductivity, but ion migration is impeded due to the physicality of the wall. We perform detailed concentration and separation experiments across varying electric potentials, flow rates, and TE concentrations. We also show that TPE can achieve a 60,000-fold concentration factor continuously without an LE, using only 10 V DC. In comparison with conventional batch-driven ITP, continuous free-flow wall TPE (FFTPE) has the potential to serve as a simplified alternative method. FFTPE offers a high concentration power at a fraction of the required voltage, does not require an LE, and has the increased throughput potential of a continuous process.

Isotachophoresis: Theory and Microfluidic Applications

Isotachophoresis (ITP) is a versatile electrophoretic technique that can be used for sample preconcentration, separation, purification, and mixing, and to control and accelerate chemical reactions. Although the basic technique is nearly a century old and widely used, there is a persistent need for an easily approachable, succinct, and rigorous review of ITP theory and analysis. This is important because the interest and adoption of the technique has grown over the last two decades, especially with its implementation in microfluidics and integration with on-chip chemical and biochemical assays. We here provide a review of ITP theory starting from physicochemical first-principles, including conservation of species, conservation of current, approximation of charge neutrality, pH equilibrium of weak electrolytes, and so-called regulating functions that govern transport dynamics, with a strong emphasis on steady and unsteady transport. We combine these generally applicable (to all types of ITP) theoretical discussions with applications of ITP in the field of microfluidic systems, particularly on-chip biochemical analyses. Our discussion includes principles that govern the ITP focusing of weak and strong electrolytes; ITP dynamics in peak and plateau modes; a review of simulation tools, experimental tools, and detection methods; applications of ITP for on-chip separations and trace analyte manipulation; and design considerations and challenges for microfluidic ITP systems. We conclude with remarks on possible future research directions. The intent of this review is to help make ITP analysis and design principles more accessible to the scientific and engineering communities and to provide a rigorous basis for the increased adoption of ITP in microfluidics.

Long-term thermal stability of fluorescent dye used for chiral amino acid analysis on future spaceflight missions

Future spaceflight missions focused on life detection will carry with them new, state-of-the-art instrumentation capable of highly selective and sensitive organic analysis. CE-LIF is an ideal candidate for such a mission due to its high separation efficiency and low LODs. One perceived risk of utilizing this technique on a future mission is the stability of the chemical reagents in the spaceflight environment. Here, we present an investigation of the thermal stability of the fluorescent dye (5-carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester) used for amino acid analysis. The dye was stored at 4, 25, and 60°C for 1 month, 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years. When stored at 4°C for 2 years, 25°C for 6 months, or 60°C for 1 month there was no effect on CE-LIF assay performance due to dye degradation. Beyond these time points, while the dye degradation begins to interfere with the analysis, it is still possible to perform the analysis and achieve the majority of amino acid biosignature science goals described in the science definition team report for the potential Europa Lander mission. This work indicates that thermal control of the dye at ≤4°C will be needed during transit on future spaceflight missions to maintain dye stability.

2D separations on a 1D chip: gradient elution moving boundary electrophoresis-chiral capillary zone electrophoresis

A new method is described for two-dimensional (2D) separations using a microfluidic chip normally employed for single dimension electrophoresis. The method employs a combination of gradient elution moving boundary electrophoresis (GEMBE) and chiral capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE). The simplicity of the first dimension GEMBE method enables its implementation in the injection channel of a conventional electrophoresis chip, simplifying the design and operation of the device. The method was used for high resolution 2D chiral separations of a mixture of amino acids considered as possible signatures of extant or extinct life for solar system exploration. The enantiomers of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, alanine, and valine were all resolved as well as glycine (achiral) and several unidentified impurities, giving an estimated peak capacity of 35 for the region between valine and glycine. The results highlight the need for high peak capacity separations for chiral amino acid analysis if accurate enantiomeric ratios are to be determined.

An experimental investigation of the evolution of chirality in a potential dynamic peptide system: N-terminal epimerization and degradation into diketopiperazine

The APED model (activation-polymerization-epimerization-depolymerization) is a unique example of a chemical system that allows symmetry breaking through a dynamic process involving indirect network autocatalysis. In its simplest version, the autocatalytic behavior of this model partly relies on the reproduction of local chiral centers in dipeptides through an epimerization process, with a thermodynamic preference for homochiral chains. We studied the reactivity of di- and tripeptides, containing a N-terminal phenylglycine (Phg) residue, as model compounds for the experimental determination of the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters related to the N-terminal epimerization process. Although the N-terminal residue is prone to spontaneous epimerization, catalysis was required for the epimerization to reach the equilibrium state in reasonable time. Unexpectedly, the observed equilibrium diastereoisomeric excesses have shown a general tendency for more stable heterochiral peptides, especially strong in the case of dipeptides. In parallel to this process, a stereoselective peptide cleavage through diketopiperazine formation was observed. Contrary to the N-terminal epimerization of peptides, the diketopiperazine formation did not need any catalyst, and heterochiral peptides were shown to be dynamically unstabilized, as they were cleaved faster than homochiral peptides. The validity of the extrapolation of these results to other residues and longer peptide chains is discussed, and some directions for future developments of the theoretical model are given.

Gradient counterflow electrophoresis methods for bioanalysis

CE has evolved as one of the most efficient separation techniques for a wide range of analytes, from small molecules to large proteins. Modern microdevices facilitate integration of multiple sample-handling steps, from preparation to separation and detection, and often rely on CE for separations. However, CE frequently requires complex geometries for performing sample injections and maintaining zone profiles across long separation lengths in microdevices. Two novel methods for performing electrophoretic separations, gradient elution moving boundary electrophoresis (GEMBE) and gradient elution isotachophoresis (GEITP), have been developed to simplify microcolumn operations. Both techniques use variable hydrodynamic counterflow and continuous sample injection to perform analyses in short, simple microcolumns. These properties result in instruments and microdevices that have minimal ‘real-world’ interfaces and reduced footprints. Additionally, GEITP is a rapid enrichment technique that addresses sensitivity issues in CE and microchips.