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D'Uva JA, DeTata D, May CD, Lewis SW. Investigations into the source attribution of party sparklers using trace elemental analysis and chemometrics. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:4939-4948. [PMID: 33030194 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay01319f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In Australia, party sparklers are commonly used to initiate or prepare inorganic based homemade explosives (HMEs) as they are the most easily accessible and inexpensive pyrotechnic available on the market. As sparkler residue would be encountered in cases involving these types of devices, the characterisation and source determination of the residue would be beneficial within a forensic investigation. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the potential of using trace elemental profiling coupled with chemometric and other statistical techniques to link a variety of different sparklers to their origin. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to determine the concentration of 50 elements in 48 pre-blast sparkler samples from eight sparkler brands/classes available in Australia. Extracting ground-up sparkler residue in 10% nitric acid for 24 hours was found to give the most reliable quantification. The collected data were analysed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to visualise the distribution of the sample data and explore whether the sparkler samples could be classified into their respective brands. ANOVA based feature selection was used to remove elements that did not largely contribute to the separation between classes. This resulted in the development of a 7-elemental profile, consisting of V, Co, Ni, Sr, Sn, Sb, W, which could be used to correctly classify the samples into eight distinct groups. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) was subsequently used to construct a discriminant model using four out of six samples from each class. The model successfully classified 100% of the samples to their correct sparkler brand. The model also correctly matched 100% of the remaining samples to the correct class. This demonstrates the potential of using trace elemental analysis and chemometrics to correctly identify and discriminate between party sparklers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A D'Uva
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia and Curtin Institute of Functional Molecules and Interfaces, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
| | - David DeTata
- ChemCentre, Manning Road, Bentley, 6102, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Christopher D May
- ChemCentre, Manning Road, Bentley, 6102, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Simon W Lewis
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia and Curtin Institute of Functional Molecules and Interfaces, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
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2
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Abstract
This work comprehensively reviews some fundamental concepts about explosives and their two commonly used classifications based on either their velocity of detonation or their application. These classifications are highly useful in the military/legal field, but completely useless for the chemical determination of explosives. Because of this reason, a classification of explosives based on their chemical composition is comprehensively revised, discussed and updated. This classification seeks to merge those dispersed chemical classifications of explosives found in literature into a unique general classification, which might be useful for every researcher dealing with the analytical chemical identification of explosives. In the knowledge of the chemical composition of explosives, the most adequate analytical techniques to determine them are finally discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Zapata
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP); and CINQUIFOR# research group, University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona km 33.600, Alcalá de Henares, (Madrid) 28871, Spain
| | - Carmen García-Ruiz
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP); and CINQUIFOR# research group, University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona km 33.600, Alcalá de Henares, (Madrid) 28871, Spain
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3
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Bezemer KD, van Duin LV, Martín-Alberca C, Somsen GW, Schoenmakers PJ, Haselberg R, van Asten AC. Rapid forensic chemical classification of confiscated flash banger fireworks using capillary electrophoresis. Forensic Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2019.100187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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He N, Ni Y, Teng J, Li H, Yao L, Zhao P. Identification of inorganic oxidizing salts in homemade explosives using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2019; 221:117164. [PMID: 31163327 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2019.117164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Recently, inorganic low explosives, such as pyrotechnic composition, black powder, and ammonium nitrate, are commonly used in improvised explosive devices (IEDs) by the rioter or terrorists since these energetic materials can be obtained easily and legally from civilian markets. Identification of inorganic oxidizing salts in these homemade explosives, including nitrates, chlorates, and perchlorates, is a necessary procedure for forensic investigators to provide criminal evidences. In this article, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to discriminate NO3-, CO32-, ClO3-, ClO4-, SO42-, and NH4+, whose characteristic absorption bands were explained by vibration modes of the covalent bonds. Then the spectral absorption features of nitrate salts with monovalent or divalent cations were discussed. Furthermore, it was studied whether nitrates or perchlorates can be unequivocally distinguished with the presence of carbonate and sulfate impurities through FTIR technique. Finally, the feasibility of this method was verified through an analytical case of homemade explosives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning He
- Department of Forensic Chemistry, Criminal Investigation Police University of China, Shenyang 110035, China
| | - Yunchang Ni
- Department of Forensic Chemistry, Criminal Investigation Police University of China, Shenyang 110035, China
| | - Jiao Teng
- Department of Forensic Chemistry, Criminal Investigation Police University of China, Shenyang 110035, China
| | - Hongda Li
- Department of Forensic Chemistry, Criminal Investigation Police University of China, Shenyang 110035, China
| | - Lijuan Yao
- Department of Forensic Chemistry, Criminal Investigation Police University of China, Shenyang 110035, China
| | - Pengcheng Zhao
- Department of Forensic Chemistry, Criminal Investigation Police University of China, Shenyang 110035, China.
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Bezemer K, Woortmeijer R, Koeberg M, Wiarda W, Schoenmakers P, van Asten A. Multicomponent characterization and differentiation of flash bangers - Part II: Elemental profiling of plastic caps. Forensic Sci Int 2018; 290:336-348. [PMID: 30033211 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
This study builds on the multicomponent analysis strategy for flash bangers which was previously introduced and where a representative sample set has been collected of a certain type of flash bangers. To expand the forensic strategy, elemental analysis of the plastic caps which are present in these items was performed. Both x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis was performed to explore the possibilities for differentiation. The inherent inhomogeneity of the plastics resulted in high variations, especially for LA-ICP-MS trace analysis. In addition, due to the lack of suitable reference materials the LA-ICP-MS results can only be used for qualitative comparisons. Although XRF is less sensitive it allows for semi-quantitative analysis and the effect of inhomogeneity is significantly reduced due to the larger sample areas. Therefore, XRF is the method of choice for elemental analysis of intact plastic caps. In this scenario initial differentiation based on visual examination is combined with elemental analysis to obtain the highest degree of discrimination. In post-explosive scenarios, using XRF is not as straightforward due the irregular shapes of the burned plastic cap residues and contamination by explosive residues. For the analysis of these post-explosive caps, LA-ICP-MS proved to be useful for characterization and differentiation. Overall, it was found that blue caps contain a considerable higher amount of elements than the white caps, mainly due to additives related to the coloring process. This limits differentiation for the flash bangers containing white caps. Therefore, isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) analysis was performed to increase the differentiation potential. Based on carbon and hydrogen isotope ratios additional sets could be distinguished, both for flash bangers containing white and blue caps, that otherwise have similar visual and elemental characteristics. With the elemental and isotopic analysis of the plastic caps, an analysis strategy has been introduced that is not based on the pyrotechnic charge and therefore provides a unique opportunity to perform characterization and differentiation of flash bangers in pre- and post-explosive casework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlijn Bezemer
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands.
| | - Rikus Woortmeijer
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Mattijs Koeberg
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Wim Wiarda
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Schoenmakers
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arian van Asten
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Netherlands Forensic Institute, P.O. Box 24044, 2490 AA The Hague, The Netherlands; CLHC, Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Zapata F, García-Ruiz C. The discrimination of 72 nitrate, chlorate and perchlorate salts using IR and Raman spectroscopy. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2018; 189:535-542. [PMID: 28865354 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2017.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic oxidizing energetic salts including nitrates, chlorates and perchlorates are widely used in the manufacture of not only licit pyrotechnic compositions, but also illicit homemade explosive mixtures. Their identification in forensic laboratories is usually accomplished by either capillary electrophoresis or ion chromatography, with the disadvantage of dissociating the salt into its ions. On the contrary, vibrational spectroscopy, including IR and Raman, enables the non-invasive identification of the salt, i.e. avoiding its dissociation. This study focuses on the discrimination of all nitrate, chlorate and perchlorate salts that are commercially available, using both Raman and IR spectroscopy, with the aim of testing whether every salt can be unequivocally identified. Besides the visual spectra comparison by assigning every band with the corresponding molecular vibrational mode, a statistical analysis based on Pearson correlation was performed to ensure an objective identification, either using Raman, IR or both. Positively, 25 salts (out of 72) were unequivocally identified using Raman, 30 salts when using IR and 44 when combining both techniques. Negatively, some salts were undistinguishable even using both techniques demonstrating there are some salts that provide very similar Raman and IR spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Zapata
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Madrid), Spain.
| | - Carmen García-Ruiz
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Madrid), Spain.
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Analysis of different materials subjected to open-air explosions in search of explosive traces by Raman microscopy. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 275:57-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Zapata F, García-Ruiz C. Determination of Nanogram Microparticles from Explosives after Real Open-Air Explosions by Confocal Raman Microscopy. Anal Chem 2016; 88:6726-33. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b00927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Félix Zapata
- Department of Analytical
Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and University
Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km. 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen García-Ruiz
- Department of Analytical
Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and University
Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km. 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
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Martín-Alberca C, Zapata F, Carrascosa H, Ortega-Ojeda FE, García-Ruiz C. Study of consumer fireworks post-blast residues by ATR-FTIR. Talanta 2016; 149:257-265. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2015.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Recent advances in capillary electrophoresis instrumentation for the analysis of explosives. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2015.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Sáiz J, Duc MT, Koenka IJ, Martín-Alberca C, Hauser PC, García-Ruiz C. Concurrent determination of anions and cations in consumer fireworks with a portable dual-capillary electrophoresis system. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1372C:245-252. [PMID: 25465022 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.10.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A new automated portable dual-channel capillary electrophoresis instrument was built and applied to the concurrent determination of cations and anions. The system uses a single buffer and hydrodynamic injection of the sample is performed autonomously. A novel engraved flow-cell interface is used at the injection ends of the capillaries allowing the autonomous operation of the system. The engraved flow-cell replaces traditionally used split injectors in purpose made capillary electrophoresis systems and makes the system design easier. A new software package with graphical user interface was employed to control the system, making its operation simple and increasing its versatility. The electrophoretic method was optimized to allow the baseline separation of 12 cations and anions commonly found in fireworks. The system was proven to be useful for the analysis of consumer fireworks, saving time and expenses compared to separate analyses for anions and cations. This is the first time that cationic and anionic compositions of fireworks are investigated together. The analysis of samples revealed several inaccuracies between the declared compositions for the fireworks and the obtained results, which could be attributed to cross-contamination during their manufacture or to a transfer between other components of the pyrotechnic item. The presence of certain unexpected peaks, however, had no apparent reason and might represent an irregularity in the manufacture of some devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Sáiz
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain; University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mai Thanh Duc
- Centre for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (CETASD), Hanoi University of Science, Nguyen Trai Street 334, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Israel Joel Koenka
- University of Basel, Department of Chemistry, Spitalstrasse 51, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Carlos Martín-Alberca
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain; University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Peter C Hauser
- University of Basel, Department of Chemistry, Spitalstrasse 51, 4056 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Carmen García-Ruiz
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain; University Institute of Research in Police Sciences (IUICP), University of Alcalá, Ctra. Madrid-Barcelona Km 33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain.
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