Ultra pH-sensitive detection of total and free prostate-specific antigen using electrochemical aptasensor based on reduced graphene oxide/gold nanoparticles emphasis on TiO2/carbon quantum dots as a redox probe

Electrolyte-gated amorphous IGZO transistors with extended gates for prostate-specific antigen detection

The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is considered an important way for preoperative diagnosis and accurate screening of prostate cancer. Current antigen detection methods, including radioimmunoassay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and microfluidic electrochemical detection, feature expensive equipment, long testing time and poor stability. Here, we propose a portable biosensor composed of electrolyte-gated amorphous indium gallium zinc oxide (a-IGZO) transistors with an extended gate, which can achieve real-time, instant PSA detection at a low operating voltage (<2 V) owing to the liquid-free ionic conductive elastomer (ICE) serving as the gate dielectric. The electric double layer (EDL) capacitance in ICE enhances the accumulation of carriers in the IGZO channel, leading to strong gate modulation, which enables the IGZO transistor to have a small subthreshold swing (<0.5 V dec-1) and a high on-state current (∼4 × 10-4 A). The separate, biodegradable, and pluggable sensing pad, serving as an extended gate connected to the IGZO transistor, prevents contamination and depletion arising from direct contact with biomolecular buffers, enabling the IGZO transistor to maintain superior electronic performance for at least six months. The threshold voltage and channel current of the transistor exhibit excellent linear response to PSA molecule concentrations across five orders of magnitude ranging from 1 fg mL-1 to 10 pg mL-1, with a detection limit of 400 ag mL-1 and a detection time of ∼5.1 s. The fabricated biosensors offer a point-of-care system for antigen detection, attesting the feasibility of the electrolyte-gated transistors in clinical screening, healthcare diagnostics and biological management.

2D graphene-based advanced nanoarchitectonics for electrochemical biosensors: Applications in cancer biomarker detection

Low-cost, rapid, and easy-to-use biosensors for various cancer biomarkers are of utmost importance in detecting cancer biomarkers for early-stage metastasis control and efficient diagnosis. The molecular complexity of cancer biomarkers is overwhelming, thus, the repeatability and reproducibility of measurements by biosensors are critical factors. Electrochemical biosensors are attractive alternatives in cancer diagnosis due to their low cost, simple operation, and promising analytical figures of merit. Recently graphene-derived nanostructures have been used extensively for the fabrication of electrochemical biosensors because of their unique physicochemical properties, including the high electrical conductivity, adsorption capacity, low cost and ease of mass production, presence of oxygen-containing functional groups that facilitate the bioreceptor immobilization, increased flexibility and mechanical strength, low cellular toxicity. Indeed, these properties make them advantageous compared to other alternatives. However, some drawbacks must be overcome to extend their use, such as poor and uncontrollable deposition on the substrate due to the low dispersity of some graphene materials and irreproducibility of the results because of the differences in various batches of the produced graphene materials. This review has documented the most recently developed strategies for electrochemical sensor fabrication. It differs in the categorization method compared to published works to draw greater attention to the wide opportunities of graphene nanomaterials for biological applications. Limitations and future scopes are discussed to advance the integration of novel technologies such as artificial intelligence, the internet of medical things, and triboelectric nanogenerators to eventually increase efficacy and efficiency.

Magnetically-assisted electrochemical immunoplatform for simultaneous detection of active and total prostate-specific antigen based on proteolytic reaction and sandwich affinity analysis

Simultaneous detection of active and inactive proteases is clinically meaningful for improving diagnostic specificity. In this work, we reported an electrochemical method for simultaneous immunoassays of active and total proteases. Magnetic beads (MBs) were used as the solid supports for immobilization of capture antibodies and enrichment of targets. For the detection of active protease, the proteolytic-reaction-based analysis was carried out by the generation of Cu2+-binding peptide, in which a label-free peptide was used as the proteolytic substrate. The redox potential of the resulting peptide-Cu2+ complex was intrinsically distinguished from that of free Cu2+, thus allowing the "signal-on" detection of active protease. For the immunoassay of total protease in a sandwich-like format, electroactive metal-organic frameworks (Cu-MOFs) were used as the signal tags. The captured Cu-MOFs could directly produce a well-defined electrochemical signal from the reduction of Cu2+ ions. The analytical performances of the immunoplatform were evaluated by determining the model analytes of free and total prostate-specific antigen (fPSA and tPSA) in buffer and serum. The detection limits were found to be 0.3 pM for fPSA and 2 pM for tPSA. This work proposed a new strategy for simultaneous detection of active and total proteases, which should be evaluable for clinical diagnosis and treatment of protease-relative diseases.

Point-of-Care Prostate Specific Antigen Testing: Examining Translational Progress toward Clinical Implementation

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most common male cancer and is attributable to over 375,000 deaths annually. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a key biomarker for PCa and therefore measuring patient PSA levels is an important aspect of the diagnostic pathway. Automated immunoassays are currently utilized for PSA analysis, but they require a laboratory setting with specialized equipment and trained personnel. This results in high diagnostic costs, extended therapeutic turnaround times, and restrictions on testing capabilities in resource-limited settings. Consequently, there is a strong drive to develop point-of-care (PoC) PSA tests that can offer accurate, low-cost, and rapid results at the time and place of the patient. However, many emerging PoC tests experience a trade-off between accuracy, affordability, and accessibility which distinctly limits their translational potential. This review comprehensively assesses the translational advantages and limitations of emerging laboratory-level and commercial PoC tests for PSA determination. Electrochemical and optical PSA sensors from 2013 to 2023 are systematically examined. Furthermore, we suggest how the translational potential of emerging tests can be optimized to achieve clinical implementation and thus improve PCa diagnosis globally.

Preparation and characterization of pH-sensitive chitosan/starch/MoS2 nanocomposite for control release of curcumin macromolecules drug delivery; application in the breast cancer treatment

In this work, chitosan (CS), Starch (S), and Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) were combined to create a nanocarrier that was utilized to treat breast cancer using the MCF-7 cell line. To analyze the features of the nanocarrier, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-Ray diffraction (XRD) tests were performed, respectively, to discover physical interactions and chemical bonding. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Dynamic light scattering (DLS), and zeta potential analyses were performed and reported to determine the structural characteristics and morphology of nanoparticles, size distribution, and surface charge of nanocarriers, respectively. The average size of the nanocomposite was measured at around 279 nm, and the surface charge of the nanocarrier was determined to be +86.31 mV. The entrapment and drug loading efficiency of nanocarriers were 87.25 % and 46.5 %, respectively, which is an acceptable value. The kinetics and release mode of the drug were investigated, and it was found that the synthesized nanocarrier was sensitive to pH and that its release was stable. The amount of the nanocarriers' toxicity and cell death were evaluated using MTT tests and flow cytometry, respectively. In the present study, the nanocarrier was wholly nontoxic and had anticancer properties against the MCF-7 cell line. This nanocarrier is very important due to its non-toxicity and sensitivity to pH and can be used in drug delivery and medical applications.

Synthesis and characterization of biological macromolecules double emulsion based on carboxymethylcellulose/gelatin hydrogel incorporated with ZIF-8 as metal organic frameworks for sustained anti-cancer drug release

The field of nanotechnology has introduced novel prospects for drug delivery systems, which have the potential to supplant conventional chemotherapy with reduced adverse effects. Despite being a promising porous material, ZIF-8, a metal-organic framework, tends to agglomerate in water, which limits its applicability. In order to resolve this problem, we added ZIF-8 to hydrogels consisting of gelatin and carboxymethylcellulose. This improved their mechanical strength and stability while avoiding aggregation. We utilized double emulsions with the hydrogels' biological macromolecules to construct drug carriers with enhanced control over drug release. The nanocarriers were subjected to various analytical techniques for characterization, such as Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), zeta potential, and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The findings of our study revealed that the mean size of the produced nanocarriers were 250 nm, and their zeta potential was -40.1 mV, which suggests favorable stability. The synthesized nanocarriers were found to exhibit cytotoxicity towards cancer cells, as evidenced by the results of MTT assays and flow cytometry tests. The cell viability percentage was determined to be 55 % for the prepared nanomedicine versus 70 % for the free drug. In summary, our study illustrates that the integration of ZIF-8 into hydrogels produces drug delivery systems with improved characteristics. Furthermore, the prepared nanocarriers exhibit potential for future investigation and advancement.

A green approach for preparation of polyacrylic acid/starch incorporated with titanium dioxide nanocomposite as a biocompatible platform for curcumin delivery to breast cancer cells

Curcumin (Cur) is a polyphenolic hydrophobic molecule with several biological uses, including cancer therapy. However, its widespread use in cancer treatment faces limitations due to its low solubility in acidic and neutral conditions, rapid removal from the circulatory system, and poor bioavailability. In order to overcome these challenges, a biocompatible and pH-sensitive carrier nanoplatform was designed for the specific delivery of curcumin to breast cancer cells. This nanocomposite containing polyacrylic acid (PAA), starch, and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) was synthesized with a specific morphology through the water-in-oil-in-water green emulsification strategy. The nanocomposite structure was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential, and field-emission scanning electrom microscopy (FE-SEM) imaging tests. The mean particle size of 151 nm for the PAA-Starch-TiO₂ nanocomposite ensures specific entry into cancer cells and minimal damage to healthy cells. Loading efficiency (LE) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) for curcumin obtained 49.50 % and 87.25 %, which are desirable for a carrier nanoplatform. Compared to the physiological medium, the in-vitro release of curcumin was higher in the acidic conditions in all time intervals, which indicates the possibility of targeted drug release from the PAA-Starch-TiO₂ nanocomposite around the tumor tissue. Furthermore, for better understanding of the release mechanism, the cumulative release data in both media were fitted with common mathematical kinetic models. Cytotoxicity tests against the MCF-7 cell line were performed using in vitro MTT and flow cytometry tests. The results showed that the PAA-Starch-TiO₂ carrying Cur was more effective through increasing the bioavailability and controlled release of the drug compared to the free Cur. Also, the death of cancer cells in the presence of this nanocomposite compared to free Cur occurred mainly through the induction of apoptosis, which indicates the programmed death of cancer cells and the high efficiency of the designed nanocarrier.

Green synthesized polyvinylpyrrolidone/titanium dioxide hydrogel nanocomposite modified with agarose macromolecules for sustained and pH-responsive release of anticancer drug

Cancer, as one of the most challenging diseases of the last century, has a significant number of patients and deaths every year. Various strategies have been explored for the treatment of cancer. Chemotherapy is one of the methods of treating cancer. Doxorubicin is one of the compounds used in chemotherapy to kill cancer cells. Due to their unique properties and low toxicity, metal oxide nanoparticles are effective in combination therapy and increase the effectiveness of anti-cancer compounds. The limited in vivo circulatory period, poor solubility, and inadequate penetration of doxorubicin (DOX) restrict its use in cancer treatment, notwithstanding its attractive characteristics. It is possible to circumvent some of the difficulties in cancer therapy by using green synthesized pH-responsive nanocomposite consisting of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), titanium dioxide (TiO₂) modified with agarose (Ag) macromolecules. TiO₂ incorporation into the PVP-Ag nanocomposite resulted in limited increased loading and encapsulation efficiencies from 41 % to 47 % and 84 % to 88.5 %, respectively. DOX diffusion among normal cells is prevented by the PVP-Ag-TiO₂ nanocarrier at pH = 7.4, though the acidic intracellular microenvironments activate the PVP-Ag-TiO₂ nanocarrier at pH = 5.4. Characterization of the nanocarrier was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometry, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and zeta potential. The average particle size and the zeta potential of the particles showed values of 349.8 nm and +57 mV, respectively. In vitro release after 96 h showed a release rate of 92 % at pH 7.4 and a release rate of 96 % at pH 5.4. Meanwhile, the initial release after 24 h was 42 % for pH 7.4 and 76 % for pH 5.4. As shown by an MTT analysis on MCF-7 cells, the toxicity of DOX-loaded PVP-Ag-TiO₂ nanocomposite was substantially greater than that of unbound DOX and PVP-Ag-TiO₂. After integrating TiO₂ nanomaterials into the PVP-Ag-DOX nanocarrier, flow cytometry data showed a greater stimulation of cell death. These data indicate that the DOX-loaded nanocomposite is a suitable alternative for drug delivery systems.

Wound dressing based on PVA nanofiber containing silk fibroin modified with GO/ZnO nanoparticles for superficial wound healing: In vitro and in vivo evaluations

Silk fibroin (SF), extracted from Bombyx mori, has unique physicochemical properties to achieve an efficient wound dressing. In this study, reduced graphene oxide (RGO)/ZnO NPs/silk fibroin nanocomposite was made, and an innovative nanofiber of SF/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/RGO/ZnO NPs was ready with the electrospinning technique and successfully characterized. The results of MIC and OD analyses were used to investigate the synthesized materials' antibacterial effects and displayed that the synthesized materials could inhibit growth against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bacteria. However, both in vitro cytotoxicity (MTT) and scratch wound studies have shown that RGO/ZnO NPs and SF/PVA/RGO/ZnO NPs are not only non-toxic to NIH 3T3 fibroblasts, but also can cause cell viability, cell proliferation, and cell migration. Furthermore, improving the synthesized nanofiber's structural properties in the presence of RGO and ZnO NPs has been confirmed by performing tensile strength, contact angle, and biodegradation analyses. Also, in a cell attachment analysis, fibroblast cells had migrated and expanded well in the nanofibrous structures. Moreover, in vivo assay, SF/PVA/RGO/ZnO NPs nanofiber treated rats and has been shown significant healing activity and tissue regeneration compared with other treated groups. Therefore, this study suggests that SF/PVA/RGO/ZnO NPs nanofiber is a hopeful wound dressing for preventing bacteria growth and improving superficial wound repair.

Synthesis and characterization of a novel, pH-responsive sustained release nanocarrier using polyethylene glycol, graphene oxide, and natural silk fibroin protein by a green nano emulsification method to enhance cancer treatment

In this study, for the first time, by employing a simple and efficient double nano-emulsification method and using sweet almond oil as the organic phase, polyethylene glycol (PEG)/graphene oxide (GO)/silk fibroin (SF) hydrogel-nanocomposite was synthesized. The aim of the research was to fabricate a biocompatible targeted pH-sensitive sustained release carrier, improve the drug loading capacity and enhance the anticancer effect of doxorubicin (DOX) drug. The obtained values for the entrapment (%EE) and loading efficacy (%LE) were 87.75 ± 0.7 % and 46 ± 1 %, respectively, and these high values were due to the use of GO with a large specific surface area and the electrostatic interaction between the drug and SF. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses confirmed the presence of all the components in the nanocomposite and the suitable interaction between them. Based on the results of dynamic light scattering analysis (DLS) and zeta potential analysis, the mean size of the carrier particles and its surface charge were 293.7 nm and -102.9 mV, respectively. The high negative charge was caused by the presence of hydroxyl groups in GO and SF and it caused proper stability of the nanocomposite. The spherical core-shell structure with its homogeneous surface was also observed in the field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) image. The cumulative release percentage of the nanocarrier reached 95.75 after 96 h and it is higher in the acidic environment at all times. The results of fitting the release data to the kinetic models suggested that the mechanism of release was dissolution-controlled anomalous at pH 7.4 and diffusion-controlled anomalous at pH 5.4. The results of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and flow cytometry showed an increase in toxicity on MCF-7 cells and improved apoptotic cell death compared to the free drug. Consequently, the findings of this research introduced and confirmed PEG/GO/SF nanocomposite as an attractive novel drug delivery system for pH-sensitive and sustained delivery of chemotherapeutic agents in biomedicine.

Green Synthesis of Highly Fluorescent Carbon Dots from Bovine Serum Albumin for Linezolid Drug Delivery as Potential Wound Healing Biomaterial: Bio-Synergistic Approach, Antibacterial Activity, and In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluation

A simple and green approach was developed to produce novel highly fluorescent bovine serum albumin carbon dots (BCDs) via facile one-step hydrothermal treatment, using bovine serum albumin as a precursor carbon source. Inherent blue photoluminescence of the synthesized BCDs provided a maximum photostability of 90.5 ± 1.2% and was characterized via TEM, FT-IR, XPS, XRD, UV-visible, and zeta potential analyses. By virtue of their extremely small size, intrinsic optical and photoluminescence properties, superior photostability, and useful non-covalent interactions with the synthetic oxazolidinone antibiotic linezolid (LNZ), BCDs were investigated as fluorescent nano-biocarriers for LNZ drug delivery. The release profile of LNZ from the drug delivery system (LNZ-BCDs) revealed a distinct biphasic release, which is beneficial for mollifying the lethal incidents associated with wound infection. The effective wound healing performance of the developed LNZ-BCDs were evaluated through various in vitro and ex vivo assays such as MTT, ex vivo hemolysis, in vitro antibacterial activity, in vitro skin-related enzyme inhibition, and scratch wound healing assays. The examination of LNZ-BCDs as an efficient wound healing biomaterial illustrated excellent biocompatibility and low cytotoxicity against normal human skin fibroblast (HSF) cell line, indicating distinct antibacterial activity against the most common wound infectious pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC^® 25922) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, robust anti-elastase, anti-collagenase, and anti-tyrosinase activities, and enhanced cell proliferation and migration effect. The obtained results confirmed the feasibility of using the newly designed fluorescent LNZ-BCDs nano-bioconjugate as a unique antibacterial biomaterial for effective wound healing and tissue regeneration. Besides, the greenly synthesized BCDs could be considered as a great potential substitute for toxic nanoparticles in biomedical applications due to their biocompatibility and intense fluorescence characteristics and in pharmaceutical industries as promising drug delivery nano-biocarriers for effective wound healing applications.

Gold Nanoparticles as a Biosensor for Cancer Biomarker Determination

Molecular biology applications based on gold nanotechnology have revolutionary impacts, especially in diagnosing and treating molecular and cellular levels. The combination of plasmonic resonance, biochemistry, and optoelectronic engineering has increased the detection of molecules and the possibility of atoms. These advantages have brought medical research to the cellular level for application potential. Many research groups are working towards this. The superior analytical properties of gold nanoparticles can not only be used as an effective drug screening instrument for gene sequencing in new drug development but also as an essential tool for detecting physiological functions, such as blood glucose, antigen-antibody analysis, etc. The review introduces the principles of biomedical sensing systems, the principles of nanomaterial analysis applied to biomedicine at home and abroad, and the chemical surface modification of various gold nanoparticles.

Two-Dimensional Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C3N4) Nanosheets and Their Derivatives for Diagnosis and Detection Applications

The early diagnosis of certain fatal diseases is vital for preventing severe consequences and contributes to a more effective treatment. Despite numerous conventional methods to realize this goal, employing nanobiosensors is a novel approach that provides a fast and precise detection. Recently, nanomaterials have been widely applied as biosensors with distinctive features. Graphite phase carbon nitride (g-C3N4) is a two-dimensional (2D) carbon-based nanostructure that has received attention in biosensing. Biocompatibility, biodegradability, semiconductivity, high photoluminescence yield, low-cost synthesis, easy production process, antimicrobial activity, and high stability are prominent properties that have rendered g-C3N4 a promising candidate to be used in electrochemical, optical, and other kinds of biosensors. This review presents the g-C3N4 unique features, synthesis methods, and g-C3N4-based nanomaterials. In addition, recent relevant studies on using g-C3N4 in biosensors in regard to improving treatment pathways are reviewed.

Current Perspectives in Graphene Oxide-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Cancer Diagnostics

Since the first commercial biosensor device for blood glucose measurement was introduced in the 1970s, many “biosensor types” have been developed, and this research area remains popular worldwide. In parallel with some global biosensor research reports published in the last decade, including a great deal of literature and industry statistics, it is predicted that biosensor design technologies, including handheld or wearable devices, will be preferred and highly valuable in many areas in the near future. Biosensors using nanoparticles still maintain their very important place in science and technology and are the subject of innovative research projects. Among the nanomaterials, carbon-based ones are considered to be one of the most valuable nanoparticles, especially in the field of electrochemical biosensors. In this context, graphene oxide, which has been used in recent years to increase the electrochemical analysis performance in biosensor designs, has been the subject of this review. In fact, graphene is already foreseen not only for biosensors but also as the nanomaterial of the future in many fields and is therefore drawing research attention. In this review, recent and prominent developments in biosensor technologies using graphene oxide (GO)-based nanomaterials in the field of cancer diagnosis are briefly summarized.

Fabrication of Au/Fe3O4/RGO based aptasensor for measurement of miRNA-128, a biomarker for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)

Due to their high sensitivity, simplicity, portability, self-contained, and low cost, the development of electrochemical biosensors is a beneficial way to diagnose and anticipate many types of cancers. An electrochemical nanocomposite-based aptasensor is fabricated for the determination of miRNA-128 concentration as the acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) biomarker for the first time. The aptamer chains were immobilized on the surface of the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) through gold nanoparticles/magnetite/reduced graphene oxide (AuNPs/Fe3O4/RGO). Fast Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to characterize synthesized nanomaterials. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to characterize the modified GCE in both label-free and labeled methods. The results indicate that the modified working electrode has high selectivity and for miRNA-128 over other biomolecules. The hexacyanoferrate redox system typically operated at around 0.3 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), and the methylene blue redox system ran at about 0 V, were used as an electrochemical probe. The detection limit and linear detection range for hexacyanoferrate and methylene blue are 0.05346 fM, 0.1-0.9 fM, and 0.005483 fM, 0.01-0.09 fM, respectively. The stability and diffusion control analyses were performed as well. In both label-free and labeled methods, the modified electron showed high selectivity for miRNA-128. The use of methylene blue as a safer redox mediator caused miRNA-128 to be detected with greater accuracy at low potentials in PBS media. The findings also show the substantial improvement in detection limit and linearity by using reduced graphene oxide-magnetite-gold nanoparticles that can be verified by comparing with previous studies on the detection of other miRNAs.

A novel pH-responsive nanoniosomal emulsion for sustained release of curcumin from a chitosan-based nanocarrier: emphasis on the concurrent improvement of loading, sustained release, and apoptosis induction

Curcumin application as an anti-cancer drug is faced with several impediments. This study has developed a platform that facilitates the sustained release of curcumin, improves loading efficiency, and anti-cancer activity. Montmorillonite (MMT) nanoparticles were added to chitosan (CS)-agarose (Aga) hydrogel and then loaded with curcumin (Cur) to prepare a curcumin-loaded nanocomposite hydrogel. The loading capacity increased from 63% to 76% by adding MMT nanoparticles to a chitosan-agarose hydrogel. Loading the fabricated nanocomposite in the nanoniosomal emulsion resulted in sustained release of curcumin under acidic conditions. Release kinetics analysis showed diffusion and erosion are the dominant release mechanisms, indicating non-fickian (or anomalous) transport based on the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. FTIR spectra confirmed that all nanocomposite components were present in the fabricated nanocomposite. Besides, XRD results corroborated the amorphous structure of the prepared nanocomposite. Zeta potential results corroborated the stability of the fabricated nanocarrier. Cytotoxicity of the prepared CS-Aga-MMT-Cur on MCF-7 cells was comparable to that of curcumin-treated cells (p <0.001). Moreover, the percentage of apoptotic cells increased due to the enhanced release profile resulting from the addition of MMT to the hydrogel and the incorporation of the fabricated nanocomposite into the nanoniosomal emulsion. To recapitulate, the current delivery platform improved loading, sustained release, and curcumin anti-cancer effect. Hence, this platform could be a potential candidate to mitigate cancer therapy restrictions with curcumin. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Properties and Applications of Graphene and Its Derivatives in Biosensors for Cancer Detection: A Comprehensive Review

Cancer is one of the deadliest diseases worldwide, and there is a critical need for diagnostic platforms for applications in early cancer detection. The diagnosis of cancer can be made by identifying abnormal cell characteristics such as functional changes, a number of vital proteins in the body, abnormal genetic mutations and structural changes, and so on. Identifying biomarker candidates such as DNA, RNA, mRNA, aptamers, metabolomic biomolecules, enzymes, and proteins is one of the most important challenges. In order to eliminate such challenges, emerging biomarkers can be identified by designing a suitable biosensor. One of the most powerful technologies in development is biosensor technology based on nanostructures. Recently, graphene and its derivatives have been used for diverse diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Graphene-based biosensors have exhibited significant performance with excellent sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and a wide detection range. In this review, the principle of technology, advances, and challenges in graphene-based biosensors such as field-effect transistors (FET), fluorescence sensors, SPR biosensors, and electrochemical biosensors to detect different cancer cells is systematically discussed. Additionally, we provide an outlook on the properties, applications, and challenges of graphene and its derivatives, such as Graphene Oxide (GO), Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO), and Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs), in early cancer detection by nanobiosensors.

Cancer Diagnostics and Early Detection Using Electrochemical Aptasensors

The detection of early-stage cancer offers patients the best chance of treatment and could help reduce cancer mortality rates. However, cancer cells or biomarkers are present in extremely small amounts in the early stages of cancer, requiring high-precision quantitative approaches with high sensitivity for accurate detection. With the advantages of simplicity, rapid response, reusability, and a low cost, aptamer-based electrochemical biosensors have received considerable attention as a promising approach for the clinical diagnosis of early-stage cancer. Various methods for developing highly sensitive aptasensors for the early detection of cancers in clinical samples are in progress. In this article, we discuss recent advances in the development of electrochemical aptasensors for the early detection of different cancer biomarkers and cells based on different detection strategies. Clinical applications of the aptasensors and future perspectives are also discussed.