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Josephy PD, Allen-Vercoe E. Reductive metabolism of azo dyes and drugs: Toxicological implications. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 178:113932. [PMID: 37451600 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Revised: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Azo compounds are widely distributed synthetic chemicals in the modern world. Their most important applications are as dyes, but, in addition, several azo compounds are used as pharmaceuticals. Ingested azo compounds can be reduced by the action of bacteria in the gut, where the oxygen tension is low, and the development of microbiome science has allowed more precise delineation of the roles of specific bacteria in these processes. Reduction of the azo bond of an azo compound generates two distinct classes of aromatic amine metabolites: the starting material that was used in the synthesis of the azo compound and a product which is formed de novo by metabolism. Reductive metabolism of azo compounds can have toxic consequences, because many aromatic amines are toxic/genotoxic. In this review, we discuss aspects of the development and application of azo compounds in industry and medicine. Current understanding of the toxicology of azo compounds and their metabolites is illustrated with four specific examples - Disperse Dyes used for dyeing textiles; the drugs phenazopyridine and eltrombopag; and the ubiquitous food dye, tartrazine - and knowledge gaps are identified. SUBMISSION TO: FCT VSI: Toxicology of Dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P David Josephy
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Emma Allen-Vercoe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Packaging ink microcapsules with high stability and biocompatibility based on natural dye gardenia blue. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.130778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Rodrigues Tanamachi A, Fernandes FH, de Souza Vendemiatti JA, Prediger P, Camparotto NG, Sousa Rocha N, Aragão Umbuzeiro G, Fávero Salvadori DM. Mutagenicity of a novel 2-phenylbenzotriazole (non-chlorinated 2-phenylbenzotriazole-9) in mice. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2021; 62:471-477. [PMID: 34459030 DOI: 10.1002/em.22463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Dinitrophenylazo dyes can form 2-phenylbenzotriazoles (PBTAs) in the textile dyeing process upon the addition of chemical reducing agents. Some dinitrophenylazo dyes, as well as their respective reduced (non-chlorinated) and chlorinated PBTAs, are now found in rivers owing to wastewater from textile plants. This study aimed to investigate the genotoxicity of a new PBTA derived from C.I. Disperse Violet 93 azo dye, namely non-Cl PBTA-9. Primary DNA damage in the blood, liver, and colon cells, micronucleated cells in the bone marrow, and gene expression (NAT2, CYP1A1, TRP53, and CDKN1A) in liver cells were observed in mice, at acute oral exposure (gavage) doses of 5, 50, and 500 μg/kg body weight (b.w.). The non-chlorinated PBTA-9 caused DNA damage in the blood and liver (at 500 μg/kg b.w.) and in colon cells (at 5, 50, and 500 μg/kg), and increased the frequency of micronucleated cells in the bone marrow (at 5 and 50 μg/kg). No histological alterations or gene expression changes were observed. In conclusion, in vivo exposure to non-chlorinated PBTA-9 induced genetic damage in various rodent tissues, corroborating results previously obtained from the Ames test. Because this compound has been detected in rivers, exposure to humans and biota is a major concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Rodrigues Tanamachi
- Department of Pathology, Medical School, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute for Alternative Technologies of Detection, Toxicological Evaluation and Removal of Micropollutants and Radioactives (INCT-DATREM), Institute of Chemistry, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fábio Henrique Fernandes
- Department of Pathology, Medical School, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute for Alternative Technologies of Detection, Toxicological Evaluation and Removal of Micropollutants and Radioactives (INCT-DATREM), Institute of Chemistry, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Patrícia Prediger
- School of Technology, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Limeira, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Noeme Sousa Rocha
- School of Veterinary and Zootechnics, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Daisy Maria Fávero Salvadori
- Department of Pathology, Medical School, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute for Alternative Technologies of Detection, Toxicological Evaluation and Removal of Micropollutants and Radioactives (INCT-DATREM), Institute of Chemistry, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
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Rahimi S, Singh MP, Gupta J. Adverse effects of textile dyes on antioxidant enzymes and cholinesterase activities in Drosophila melanogaster (Oregon R +). Drug Chem Toxicol 2020; 45:1131-1139. [PMID: 32838564 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2020.1809671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The effluents from textile dyeing industry are causing water pollution and may transform into more toxic and carcinogenic chemical species by environmental conditions. Therefore systemic toxicity of textile dyes is major health concern. Hence, this study sought to examine the toxic effect of disperse textile dyes on important systemic enzymes in the larvae of wild type Drosophila melanogaster (Oregon R+). Drosophila larvae were fed with corn-sugar-yeast diets containing two disperse dyes, Disperse blue-124 and Disperse black-9 (1, 10 and 100 mg/mL) for 2 days (48 h) and subsequent the enzymatic estimations were carried out using larval homogenate. In silico molecular docking studies were also performed to analyze the binding interaction of these dyes with acetyl choline esterase enzyme. Disperse black 9 shows more strong binding by occupying a groove and forming one hydrogen bond with Tyr465 of acetyl choline esterase enzyme while Disperse blue-124 shows surface binding without forming any hydrogen bond. Drosophila larvae fed on these dyes exhibited a dose-dependent increase in acetyl choline esterase enzymatic activity (1.8 fold increase with Disperse black-9, 100 mg/mL) while 4.4-folds Disperse blue-124, 100 mg/mL). Both Disperse Blue and Disperse Black dyes altered the activities of antioxidant enzymes Catalase (CAT, increased more than 2.5 fold), Superoxide dismutase (SOD, increased more than two folds) and showed a dose-dependent increase in Xanthine oxidase and lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels (more than 3 folds). Therefore both the disperse dyes were found to dysregulate the activities of antioxidant enzymes which may be the underlying mechanism for their toxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaista Rahimi
- School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University (LPU), Phagwara, India
| | - Mahendra P Singh
- School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University (LPU), Phagwara, India
| | - Jeena Gupta
- School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University (LPU), Phagwara, India
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Zhuang M, Sanganyado E, Xu L, Zhu J, Li P, Liu W. High Throughput Sediment DNA Sequencing Reveals Azo Dye Degrading Bacteria Inhabit Nearshore Sediments. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8020233. [PMID: 32050437 PMCID: PMC7074817 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Estuaries and coastal environments are often regarded as a critical resource for the bioremediation of organic pollutants such as azo dyes due to their high abundance and diversity of extremophiles. Bioremediation through the activities of azoreductase, laccase, and other associated enzymes plays a critical role in the removal of azo dyes in built and natural environments. However, little is known about the biodegradation genes and azo dye degradation genes residing in sediments from coastal and estuarine environments. In this study, high-throughput sequencing (16S rRNA) of sediment DNA was used to explore the distribution of azo-dye degrading bacteria and their functional genes in estuaries and coastal environments. Unlike laccase genes, azoreductase (azoR), and naphthalene degrading genes were ubiquitous in the coastal and estuarine environments. The relative abundances of most functional genes were higher in the summer compared to winter at locations proximal to the mouths of the Hanjiang River and its distributaries. These results suggested inland river discharges influenced the occurrence and abundance of azo dye degrading genes in the nearshore environments. Furthermore, the azoR genes had a significant negative relationship with total organic carbon, Hg, and Cr (p < 0.05). This study provides critical insights into the biodegradation potential of indigenous microbial communities in nearshore environments and the influence of environmental factors on microbial structure, composition, and function which is essential for the development of technologies for bioremediation in azo dye contaminated sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Zhuang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China; (M.Z.); (L.X.); (P.L.)
| | - Edmond Sanganyado
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China; (M.Z.); (L.X.); (P.L.)
- Correspondence: (E.S.); (W.L.)
| | - Liang Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China; (M.Z.); (L.X.); (P.L.)
| | - Jianming Zhu
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China;
| | - Ping Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China; (M.Z.); (L.X.); (P.L.)
| | - Wenhua Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China; (M.Z.); (L.X.); (P.L.)
- Correspondence: (E.S.); (W.L.)
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Dhungana B, Peng H, Kutarna S, Umbuzeiro G, Shrestha S, Liu J, Jones PD, Subedi B, Giesy JP, Cobb GP. Abundances and concentrations of brominated azo dyes detected in indoor dust. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 252:784-793. [PMID: 31200204 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Dust samples were collected from four indoor environments, including childcare facilities, houses, hair salons, and a research facility from the USA and were analyzed for brominated compounds using full scan liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry. A total of 240 brominated compounds were detected in these dust samples, and elemental formulas were predicted for 120 more abundant ions. In addition to commonly detected brominated flame retardants (BFRs), nitrogen-containing brominated azo dyes (BADs) were among the most frequently detected and abundant. Specifically, greater abundances of BADs were detected in indoor dusts from daycares and salons compared to houses and the research facility. Using authentic standards, a quantitative method was established for two BADs (DB373: Disperse Blue 373 and DV93: Disperse Violet 93) and 2-bromo-4,6-dinitroaniline, a commonly used precursor in azo dye production, in indoor dust. Generally, greater concentrations of DB373 (≤3850 ng/g) and DV93 (≤1190 ng/g) were observed in indoor dust from daycares highlighting children as a susceptible population to potential health risk from exposure to BADs. These data are important because, to date, targeted analysis of brominated compounds in indoor environments has focused mainly on BFRs and appears to underestimate the total amount of brominated compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birendra Dhungana
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
| | - Hui Peng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Steven Kutarna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Gisela Umbuzeiro
- School of Technology, FT-UNICAMP, Sate University of Campinas, Limeira, Brazil
| | - Sujan Shrestha
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
| | - Paul D Jones
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Bikram Subedi
- Department of Chemistry, Murray State University, Murray, KY, United States
| | - John P Giesy
- Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - George P Cobb
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States.
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Fernandes FH, Umbuzeiro GDA, Salvadori DMF. Genotoxicity of textile dye C.I. Disperse Blue 291 in mouse bone marrow. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2018; 837:48-51. [PMID: 30595209 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Color Index (C.I.) Disperse Blue 291 (DB291) is an azo dye used by the textile industry. After yarn dyeing, wastewater containing the dye, released into the aquatic environment, may pollute drinking water sources. We investigated the mutagenicity and genotoxicity of DB291 in male Swiss mice, following oral administration. Micronucleated cells, primary DNA damage (comet assay) in blood, liver, and kidney cells, and BAX, BCL2, SMAD4 and TNFA gene expression in leukocytes were evaluated. An increased frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCEs) was observed in animals treated with 50 mg/kg bw; no other genetic alteration was detected. Neither primary DNA damage nor changes in gene expression were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fábio Henrique Fernandes
- UNESP - São Paulo State University, Medical School, Department Pathology - Rubião Júnior, 18.618-687, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | - Daisy Maria Fávero Salvadori
- UNESP - São Paulo State University, Medical School, Department Pathology Rubião Júnior, 18.618-687, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil.
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