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Capozzi SL, Leang AL, Rodenburg LA, Chandramouli B, Delistraty DA, Carter CH. PFAS in municipal landfill leachate: Occurrence, transformation, and sources. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 334:138924. [PMID: 37209854 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
To understand sources and processes affecting per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), 32 PFAS were measured in landfill leachate from 17 landfills across Washington State in both pre-and post-total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay samples, using an analytical method that was the precursor to EPA Draft Method 1633. As in other studies, 5:3FTCA was the dominant PFAS in the leachate, suggesting that carpets, textiles, and food packaging were the main sources of PFAS. Total PFAS concentrations (Σ32PFAS) ranged from 61 to 172,976 ng/L and 580-36,122 ng/L in pre-TOP and post-TOP samples, respectively, suggesting that little or no uncharacterized precursors remained in landfill leachate. Furthermore, due to chain-shortening reactions, the TOP assay often resulted in a loss of overall PFAS mass. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis of the combined pre- and post-TOP samples produced five factors that represent sources and processes. Factor 1 consisted primarily of 5:3FTCA (intermediate of 6:2 fluorotelomer degradation and characteristic of landfill leachate), while factor 2 was dominated by PFBS (degradant of C-4 sulfonamide chemistry) and, to a lesser extent, by several PFCAs and 5:3FTCA. Factor 3 consisted primarily of both short-chain PFCAs (end-products of 6:2 fluorotelomer degradation) and PFHxS (derived from C-6 sulfonamide chemistry), while the main component of factor 4 was PFOS (dominant in many environmental media but minor in landfill leachate, perhaps reflecting a production shift from longer to shorter chain PFAS). Factor 5, highly loaded with PFCAs, was dominant in post-TOP samples and therefore represented the oxidation of precursors. Overall, PMF analysis suggests that the TOP assay approximates some redox processes which occur in landfills, including chain-shortening reactions which yield biodegradable products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Staci L Capozzi
- Paul H. O'Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Amy L Leang
- Washington State Department of Ecology, Shoreline, WA, USA; University of Washington, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Lisa A Rodenburg
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
| | | | | | - Cole H Carter
- Washington State Department of Ecology, Spokane, WA, USA
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Wallis DJ, Barton KE, Knappe DRU, Kotlarz N, McDonough CA, Higgins CP, Hoppin JA, Adgate JL. Source apportionment of serum PFASs in two highly exposed communities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 855:158842. [PMID: 36122706 PMCID: PMC10564447 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are synthetic chemicals that are ubiquitous in environmental and biological systems, including human serum. PFASs are used in many products and industrial processes and are tied to numerous health effects. Due to multiple sources and exposure pathways, methods are needed to identify PFAS sources in communities to develop targeted interventions. We assessed effectiveness of three source apportionment methods (UNMIX, positive matrix factorization [PMF], and principal component analysis - multiple linear regression [PCA-MLR]) for identifying contributors to human serum PFAS concentrations in two highly exposed populations in Colorado and North Carolina where drinking water was contaminated via upstream sources, including a Space Force base and a fluorochemical manufacturing plant. UNMIX and PMF models extracted three to four potential PFAS exposure sources in the Colorado and North Carolina cohorts while PCA-MLR classified two in each cohort. No sources were characterized in NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Study). Results suggest that these three methods can successfully identify sources in highly exposed populations. Future PFAS exposure research should focus on analyzing serum for an expanded PFAS panel, identifying cohorts with other distinct point source exposures, and combining biological and environmental data to better understand source apportionment results in the context of PFAS toxicokinetic behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan J Wallis
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
| | - Kelsey E Barton
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Detlef R U Knappe
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7908, USA; Center for Human Health and the Environment (CHHE), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Nadine Kotlarz
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7908, USA; Center for Human Health and the Environment (CHHE), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Carrie A McDonough
- Department of Civil Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Christopher P Higgins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Jane A Hoppin
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; Center for Human Health and the Environment (CHHE), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - John L Adgate
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
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Men C, Liu R, Wang Y, Cao L, Jiao L, Li L, Shen Z. A four-way model (FEST) for source apportionment: Development, verification, and application. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 426:128009. [PMID: 34923386 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.128009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In studying the spatial, temporal, and particle size variations heavy metal sources, a source apportionment model for a four-way array of data is required. In this study, referencing two-way and three-way models, a four-way (particle fractions, elements, sites, and time) source apportionment model (FEST) was developed. Errors in the three-way models solving four-way problems verified the necessity of developing the FEST model. The results showed that the FEST model had a higher accuracy than the existing models, which was probably because of more constraints and input data in the FEST model. Based on the sampled data in Beijing, sources were apportioned for the four-way array of data using the FEST model, and the spatial, temporal, and particle size variations of sources were evaluated. The main sources of heavy metals were similar to those in our prior studies, whereas the contributions of sources to specific heavy metals differed. Traffic exhaust and fuel combustion contributed more to fine particles than coarse particles, indicating that the two should be controlled preferentially among all sources. The management of traffic exhaust should be focused on the central and northern areas in each season, and the control of fuel combustion should be strengthened in the southern area in winter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Men
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ruimin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Yifan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Leiping Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Lijun Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Lin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zhenyao Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China
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Lin Y, Capozzi SL, Lin L, Rodenburg LA. Source apportionment of perfluoroalkyl substances in Great Lakes fish. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 290:118047. [PMID: 34467881 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Due to the complex sources and fate of perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS), their source apportionment in the environment remains a challenge. A data set of 11 straight-chain PFAS in 139 samples of fish in the Great Lakes was analyzed using positive matrix factorization (PMF) to investigate their primary sources, whose spatial variations were examined against the surrounding environmental factors. PMF analysis produced five fingerprints. Factor 1 (72% of Σ11PFAS, dominated by PFOS) probably represented emissions from primary sources (such as consumer products) and secondary sources (precursors), and increased in average abundance from west to east across the Great Lakes. Factor 2 (13% of Σ11PFAS) and factor 3 (7% of Σ11PFAS), highly loaded with long-chain PFAS and PFNA, respectively, were thought to represent PVDF manufacture or processing in metal plating. They showed higher contributions in sparsely populated Lakes Superior and Huron. Factor 4 (5% of Σ11PFAS, highly loaded with PFOS and PFHxS) presented hot spots near current and former air force bases, suggesting it was related to aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs). Factor 5 (4% of Σ11PFAS) contained primarily PFOS and PFOSA, which may imply metabolism of precursors (PFOSA) to PFOS in vivo. Unexpectedly, the spatial trends of the five sources all showed abnormally low values near the more urbanized Chicago and Milwaukee in Lake Michigan, which may be due to their unique wastewater and stormwater infrastructure or may arise from atmospheric transport of precursors. Our study indicated that PMF was an effective tool to identify sources of PFAS in fish despite absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) processes which might alter fingerprints in fish relative to their surrounding environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Lin
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, 600, Ligong Road, Xiamen, 361000, China
| | - Staci L Capozzi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Li Lin
- Fujian Jingwei Surveying and Mapping Information Co., Ltd, 68 Shanyuan Hong Road, Fuzhou, 350000, China
| | - Lisa A Rodenburg
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
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Lu Y, Hua Z, Chu K, Gu L, Liu Y, Liu X. Distribution behavior and risk assessment of emerging perfluoroalkyl acids in multiple environmental media at Luoma Lake, East China. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 194:110733. [PMID: 33434608 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.110733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are ubiquitous in various environments. This has caused great public concern, particularly in the shallow freshwater lake region, where the lake, rivers, and estuaries form a highly interconnected continuum. However, little is known about the environmental behaviors of PFAAs in the continuum. For the first time, a high-resolution monitoring framework covering the river-estuary-lake continuum of Luoma Lake was built, and the concentrations, sources, and environmental fates of PFAAs were identified and analyzed. The results revealed that the total concentration of PFAAs was at a moderate level in the water and at a high level in the sediment compared to global levels respectively. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) was the most abundant PFAA in the continuum. In particular, the ∑PFAA concentration in the particle phase was much higher than that in the sediment phase. Distinct spatial heterogeneities were observed in the behaviors of distribution and the multiphase fate of PFAAs in the continuum, mainly driven by the turbulent mixing during transport, dilution of lake water, and spatial differences of hydrodynamic features and sedimentary properties among the sub-regions. Interestingly, the pH of the sediment and water had significant effects on the water-sediment portioning of PFAAs in contrasting ways. Furthermore, based on the composition of the sediments, four possible migration paths for PFAAs were deduced and the main sources of PFAAs were identified as sewage, domestic, and industrial effluents using the positive matrix factorization model. During the human health assessment, no risk was found under the median exposure scenario; however, under the high exposure scenario, PFAAs posed uncertain risks to human health, which cannot be ignored. This study provides basic information for simulating the fate and transport of PFAAs in the continuum and is significant for developing cost-effective control and remediation strategies in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Lu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Zulin Hua
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Kejian Chu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China.
| | - Li Gu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China; National Engineering Research of Water Resources Efficient Utilization and Engineering Safety, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China
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