Selected food items adulteration, their impacts on public health, and detection methods: A review

Analytical approaches for the determination of adulterated animal fats and vegetable oils in food and non-food samples

Edible oils and fats are crucial components of everyday cooking and the production of food products, but their purity has been a major issue for a long time. High-quality edible oils are contaminated with low- and cheap-quality edible oils to increase profits. The adulteration of edible oils and fats also produces many health risks. Detection of main and minor components can identify adulterations using various techniques, such as GC, HPLC, TLC, FTIR, NIR, NMR, direct mass spectrometry, PCR, E-Nose, and DSC. Each detection technique has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, chromatography offers high precision but requires extensive sample preparation, while spectroscopy is rapid and non-destructive but may lack resolution. Direct mass spectrometry is faster and simpler than chromatography-based MS, eliminating complex preparation steps. DNA-based oil authentication is effective but hindered by laborious extraction processes. E-Nose only distinguishes odours, and DSC directly studies lipid thermal properties without derivatization or solvents. Mass spectrometry-based techniques, particularly GC-MS is found to be highly effective for detecting adulteration of oils and fats in food and non-food samples. This review summarizes the benefits and drawbacks of these analytical approaches and their use in conjunction with chemometric tools to detect the adulteration of animal fats and vegetable oils. This combination provides a powerful technique with enormous chemotaxonomic potential that includes the detection of adulterations, quality assurance, assessment of geographical origin, assessment of the process, and classification of the product in complex matrices from food and non-food samples.

Investigation of fraud in the production of butter: a forensic case study of criminal association

Butter is among the most popular and commercially valuable dairy products. Its high commercial value makes it a major target for adulteration, which aims to reduce production costs by using lower-quality fats and oils from other sources. The annual global market is around USD 30 billion (2023), expected to reach USD 36 billion in 2028, which also justifies the enormous interest in adulteration. In this work, a confirmed case of butter adulteration was studied by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Stable Carbon Isotopic Ratio Analysis (SCIRA) techniques, employed to detect the inclusion in butter production of vegetable oils, such as soybean and palm oils. A total of 21 samples seized by the Brazilian Federal Police were analysed by NMR and SCIR, and compared to original butter obtained from commercial sources. The composition of all the seized samples was a mixture of butter (dairy fat of animal origin) with fat of vegetable origin (soybean and palm oil) and did not contain milk as a major component. While NMR was an unequivocal choice to discriminate the chemical composition of food samples, identifying the short-chain saturated fatty acids present in milk fat, including the butyryl alkyl chain, SCIRA was able to discriminate the origin of fat present in the butter samples as C3 sources, such as palm vegetable oils.

Safeguarding Public Health: Advanced Detection of Food Adulteration Using Nanoparticle-Based Sensors

Food adulteration, whether intentional or accidental, poses a significant public health risk. Traditional detection methods often lack the precision required to detect subtle adulterants that can be harmful. Although chromatographic and spectrometric techniques are effective, their high cost and complexity have limited their widespread use. To explore and validate the application of nanoparticle-based sensors for enhancing the detection of food adulteration, focusing on their specificity, sensitivity, and practical utility in the development of resilient food safety systems. This study integrates forensic principles with advanced nanomaterials to create a robust detection framework. Techniques include the development of nanoparticle-based assays designed to improve the detection specificity and sensitivity. In addition, sensor-based technologies, including electronic noses and tongues, have been assessed for their capacity to mimic and enhance human sensory detection, offering objective and reliable results. The use of nanomaterials, including functionalized nanoparticles, has significantly improved the detection of trace amounts of adulterants. Nanoparticle-based sensors demonstrate superior performance in terms of speed, sensitivity, and selectivity compared with traditional methods. Moreover, the integration of these sensors into food safety protocols shows promise for real-time and onsite detection of adulteration. Nanoparticle-based sensors represent a cutting-edge approach for detecting food adulteration, and offer enhanced sensitivity, specificity, and scalability. By integrating forensic principles and nanotechnology, this framework advances the development of more resilient food-safety systems. Future research should focus on optimizing these technologies for widespread application and adapting them to address emerging adulteration threats.

Chemometric evaluation of inorganic and organic parameters found in Rosaceae plants proposed as food supplements

This study discusses the organic and inorganic composition of young inflorescence tissues of seven medical plants from the Prunus, Malus, and Chaenomeles families. These plants contain bioactive compounds with antioxidant and cytotoxic properties, and the study determined 29 elements, including essential and potentially harmful ones, established correlations with inorganic and organic compounds, as well as antioxidative and cytotoxic effects. The elemental patterns show that the plants contribute beneficial essential elements to the human diet. The levels of toxic elements in the plants are within safe limits set by the World Health Organization for medicinal herbs. The results confirmed genus- and species-specific uptake and accumulation. Positive correlations between d-block metals and alkaline earth metals in the inflorescences were found alongside statistically significant differences between analyte categories regarding macro-, micro- and trace elements and bioactive compounds. These correlations need to be considered when giving dietary recommendations or advice for uses as home-remedies.

Effect of ultrasound technique to improve quality of Iranian industrial honey by controlling crystallization process

This experiment aimed to assess the effects of ultrasound techniques on the quality of Iranian industrial honey. Honey samples were subjected to ultrasound waves at different frequencies and various parameters. The results showed that both ultrasound treatments (30 or 42 kHz) changed the physical, biochemical, antioxidant, and antibacterial characteristics of honey. Ultrasound treatments at 20 or 45°C for 1, 5, or 10 min reduced moisture, acidity, sugars, ABTS levels, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content, clostridium, aerobic mesophilic bacteria count, and osmophile count while increasing diastase, phenol, and proline levels. Ultrasound treatment of honey samples at 30 and 42 kHz and different temperatures for varying durations led to a decrease in acidity after 90 and 180 days. Treating honey samples with 42 kHz ultrasound at 45°C for 10 min led to a significant reduction in the amount of reducing sugar. Ultrasonication at different frequencies and temperatures led to higher levels of phenol, ABTS, and proline production, along with a considerable decrease in the total count of aerobic mesophilic bacteria. Our study unveils the potential of ultrasonication to enhance honey quality through multifaceted improvements. Treatment significantly augmented phenolic content and antioxidant capacity, opening avenues for novel honey preservation and quality enhancement strategies. Additionally, ultrasonication effectively controlled honey crystallization while simultaneously improving biochemical, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. This demonstrates its potential as a comprehensive strategy for honey quality improvement.

Analysis of odor compounds in Lee Kum Kee brand oyster sauce and oyster enzymatic hydrolysate: Comparison and relationship

Oyster sauce (OS) is a highly processed oyster product. However, the significant price difference between OS and fresh oysters raises a question: Does authentic OS truly contain components from oysters or oyster enzymatic hydrolysates (OEH)? Therefore, the odor compounds of Lee Kum Kee oyster sauce (LKK), 4 OEHs, and 6 other seafood enzymatic hydrolysates (SEHs) were analyzed by using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-olfactometry-mass spectrometry technology (SPME-GC-O-MS). The results of multivariate statistical analysis demonstrated the effective discrimination between LKK and OEHs from other SEHs. According to the VIP value and the differences in the composition of odor compounds among different samples, 15 essential odor compounds were screened out, which could distinguish whether the samples contained OEHs. Among them, acetic acid, 2-pentylfuran, 2-ethyl furan, 2-methylbutanal, and nonanal were only detected in LKK and OEHs, which further indicated the existence of OEH in LKK.

Nutritional and Microbial Quality of teff Grain as Influenced by Economically Motivated Adulteration Along the Supply Chain

Teff is a gluten-free cereal crop widely cultivated in Ethiopia and is a critical ingredient in making injera, a unique flatbread. However, there is a significant issue with adulteration of teff, impacting its safety and quality. This study evaluated economically-driven adulteration effects on teff grains' nutritional and microbial quality. A preliminary survey revealed that it is a common practice to adulterate teff grains with inexpensive and inedible materials throughout the supply chain in the study area. One hundred and thirty teff grain samples were collected from producers, collectors, whole-sellers, and retailers in the cities of Tulu bolo and Jimma to determine the types and extents of adulterants present and their effect on the nutritional and microbial quality of the grains. They were mixed separately to create composite samples representing different supply chain actors. Standard protocols were used to evaluate nutritional and microbial quality. The results showed significant differences among the supply chain actors regarding identified adulterants, nutritional content, and microbial quality. The study identified chaff, soil + sand, and dukkaa (a combination of nonedible substances separated from teff grains in milling houses and warehouses) as the significant adulterants, with mean ranges of 1.17-8.07%, 1.29-7.23%, and 8.93-37.13% respectively. The study also evaluated the proximate composition and microbial load of the teff samples collected from different supply chain actors. The ranges of values for moisture, protein, fat, ash, fiber, carbohydrate, and energy were 8.33-10.53%, 6.49-9.42%, 2.29-3.86%, 2.33-6.39%, 2.42-3.95%, 70.9-73.76%, and 333.52-361.9 kcal, respectively. The microbial load showed ranges of 6.92-7.98, 3.17-3.22, 1.78-2.04, 6.73-7.89, and 6.88-7.93 log CFU/g for Total Plate Count, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, mold, and yeast, respectively. The results showed an increase in teff adulteration from producers to Jimma retailers, indicating multiple-stage adulteration throughout the supply chain, posing a threat to product safety and quality. The study recommends good coordination among the bodies responsible for food safety, producers, and consumers to mitigate this issue effectively.