Tissue-specific developmental requirements of Drosophila tyrosine hydroxylase isoforms

Multi-Omics Reveals the Effect of Population Density on the Phenotype, Transcriptome and Metabolome of Mythimna separata

Population-density-dependent polymorphism is important in the biology of some agricultural pests. The oriental armyworm (Mythimna separata) is a lepidopteran pest (family Noctuidae). As the population density increases, its body color becomes darker, and the insect eats more and causes greater damage to crops. The molecular mechanisms underlying this phase change are not fully clear. Here, we used transcriptomic and metabolomic methods to study the effect of population density on the differentiation of second-day sixth instar M. separata larvae. The transcriptomic analysis identified 1148 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in gregarious-type (i.e., high-population-density) armyworms compared with solitary-type (low-population-density) armyworms; 481 and 667 genes were up- and downregulated, respectively. The metabolomic analysis identified 137 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs), including 59 upregulated and 78 downregulated. The analysis of DEGs and DAMs showed that activation of the insulin-like signaling pathway promotes the melanization of gregarious armyworms and accelerates the decomposition of saccharides, which promotes the gregarious type to take in more food. The gregarious type is more capable of digesting and absorbing proteins and decreases energy consumption by inhibiting transcription and translation processes. The phase change traits of the armyworm are thus attributable to plasticity of its energy metabolism. These data broaden our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of insect-density-dependent polymorphism.

Intact Drosophila central nervous system cellular quantitation reveals sexual dimorphism

Establishing with precision the quantity and identity of the cell types of the brain is a prerequisite for a detailed compendium of gene and protein expression in the central nervous system (CNS). Currently, however, strict quantitation of cell numbers has been achieved only for the nervous system of Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, we describe the development of a synergistic pipeline of molecular genetic, imaging, and computational technologies designed to allow high-throughput, precise quantitation with cellular resolution of reporters of gene expression in intact whole tissues with complex cellular constitutions such as the brain. We have deployed the approach to determine with exactitude the number of functional neurons and glia in the entire intact larval Drosophila CNS, revealing fewer neurons and more glial cells than previously predicted. We also discover an unexpected divergence between the sexes at this juvenile developmental stage, with the female CNS having significantly more neurons than that of males. Topological analysis of our data establishes that this sexual dimorphism extends to deeper features of CNS organisation. We additionally extended our analysis to quantitate the expression of voltage-gated potassium channel family genes throughout the CNS and uncover substantial differences in abundance. Our methodology enables robust and accurate quantification of the number and positioning of cells within intact organs, facilitating sophisticated analysis of cellular identity, diversity, and gene expression characteristics.

Nicotine suppresses Parkinson's disease like phenotypes induced by Synphilin-1 overexpression in Drosophila melanogaster by increasing tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine levels

It has been observed that there is a lower Parkinson's disease (PD) incidence in tobacco users. Nicotine is a cholinergic agonist and is the principal psychoactive compound in tobacco linked to cigarette addiction. Different studies have shown that nicotine has beneficial effects on sporadic and genetic models of PD. In this work we evaluate nicotine's protective effect in a Drosophila melanogaster model for PD where Synphilin-1 (Sph-1) is expressed in dopaminergic neurons. Nicotine has a moderate effect on dopaminergic neuron survival that becomes more evident as flies age. Nicotine is beneficial on fly survival and motility increasing tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine levels, suggesting that cholinergic agonists may promote survival and metabolic function of the dopaminergic neurons that express Sph-1. The Sph-1 expressing fly is a good model for the study of early-onset phenotypes such as olfaction loss one of the main non-motor symptom related to PD. Our data suggest that nicotine is an interesting therapeutic molecule whose properties should be explored in future research on the phenotypic modulators of the disease and for the development of new treatments.

Hedgehog Signaling Modulates Glial Proteostasis and Lifespan

The conserved Hedgehog signaling pathway has well-established roles in development. However, its function during adulthood remains largely unknown. Here, we investigated whether the Hedgehog signaling pathway is active during adult life in Drosophila melanogaster, and we uncovered a protective function for Hedgehog signaling in coordinating correct proteostasis in glial cells. Adult-specific depletion of Hedgehog reduces lifespan, locomotor activity, and dopaminergic neuron integrity. Conversely, increased expression of Hedgehog extends lifespan and improves fitness. Moreover, Hedgehog pathway activation in glia rescues the lifespan and age-associated defects of hedgehog mutants. The Hedgehog pathway regulates downstream chaperones, whose overexpression in glial cells was sufficient to rescue the shortened lifespan and proteostasis defects of hedgehog mutants. Finally, we demonstrate the protective ability of Hedgehog signaling in a Drosophila Alzheimer's disease model expressing human amyloid beta in the glia. Overall, we propose that Hedgehog signaling is requisite for lifespan determination and correct proteostasis in glial cells.

Cloning and characterisation of NMDA receptors in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg, 1793) in relation to metamorphosis and catecholamine synthesis

Bivalve metamorphosis is a developmental transition from a free-living larva to a benthic juvenile (spat), regulated by a complex interaction of neurotransmitters and neurohormones such as L-DOPA and epinephrine (catecholamine). We recently suggested an N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor pathway as an additional and previously unknown regulator of bivalve metamorphosis. To explore this theory further, we successfully induced metamorphosis in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, by exposing competent larvae to L-DOPA, epinephrine, MK-801 and ifenprodil. Subsequently, we cloned three NMDA receptor subunits CgNR1, CgNR2A and CgNR2B, with sequence analysis suggesting successful assembly of functional NMDA receptor complexes and binding to natural occurring agonists and the channel blocker MK-801. NMDA receptor subunits are expressed in competent larvae, during metamorphosis and in spat, but this expression is neither self-regulated nor regulated by catecholamines. In-situ hybridisation of CgNR1 in competent larvae identified NMDA receptor presence in the apical organ/cerebral ganglia area with a potential sensory function, and in the nervous network of the foot indicating an additional putative muscle regulatory function. Furthermore, phylogenetic analyses identified molluscan-specific gene expansions of key enzymes involved in catecholamine biosynthesis. However, exposure to MK-801 did not alter the expression of selected key enzymes, suggesting that NMDA receptors do not regulate the biosynthesis of catecholamines via gene expression.

Rpt2 proteasome subunit reduction causes Parkinson's disease like symptoms in Drosophila

The dysfunction of the proteasome-ubiquitin system is commonly reported in several neurodegenerative diseases. Post mortem samples of brains of patients with Parkinson´s disease present cytoplasmic inclusions that are rich in proteins such as ubiquitin, Tau, and α-synuclein. In Parkinson´s disease, a specific reduction of some of the proteasome subunits has also been reported. However, the specific role of the different proteasome subunits in dopaminergic neuron degeneration has not been thoroughly explored. In this work, we used the Gal4/UAS system to test fourteen Drosophila melanogaster RNAi lines from the Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center. Each of these lines targets a different proteasome subunit. To identify the strains that were able to induce neurodegeneration, we drove the expression of these lines to the eye and cataloged them as a function of the extent of neurodegeneration that they induced. The targeted proteasomal subunits are conserved in mammals and therefore may be relevant to study proteasome related diseases. The RNAi line among the regulatory subunits with the most penetrant phenotype targeted the proteasomal subunit Rpt2 and we decided to further characterize its phenotypes. Rpt2 knockdown in the Drosophila central nervous system reduced the activity of the proteasome, augmented the amount of insoluble ubiquitinated protein, and elicited motor and non-motor phenotypes that were similar to the ones found in Drosophila and other models for Parkinson's disease. When Rpt2 is silenced pan-neurally, third instar larvae have locomotion dysfunctions and die during pupation. Larval lethality was avoided using the Gal80-Gal4 system to induce the expression of the Rpt2 RNAi to dopaminergic neurons only after pupation. The reduction of Rpt2 in adult dopaminergic neurons causes reduced survival, hyperactivity, neurodegeneration, and sleep loss; probably recapitulating some of the sleep disorders that Parkinson's disease patients have before the appearance of locomotion disorders.

The temporary modulation of tyramine on immune responses, carbohydrate metabolism, and catecholamines in Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Tyramine (TA), a biogenic monoamine, plays various important physiological roles including immunological regulation in invertebrates. In this study, the effects of TA on the regulation of immune resistance, carbohydrate metabolism and biogenic monoamine, as well as its signaling pathway in Macrobrachium rosenbergii were determined. Results showed that total haemocyte count, hyaline cells, semigranular cells, and phenoloxidase activity per 50 μL of haemolymph and per granulocyte (the sum of semigranular and granular cells) at 0.5 h as well as phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to Lactococcus garvieae at 1 h of prawn injected with TA at 1 nmol prawn^-1 significantly increased, but the significantly decreased plasma lysozyme activity, phagocytic activity, clearance efficiency, and haemolymph glucose and dopamine were observed in prawn injected with TA at 10 nmol prawn^-1 for 0.5 h. Respiratory bursts and haemolymph lactate in two TA-injection treatments at 0.5 h and 0.5-1 h, respectively, were significantly higher than those of the saline control, and in addition, TA depressed dopamine release in a dose-dependent manner after 0.5 h of TA injection. All the examined parameters returned to control levels after prawn injected with TA for 2 h. The inhibited effect of TA (at 10 nmol prawn^-1 injection) on the phagocytic activity and clearance efficiency to pathogens was blocked by prazosin (an α1 adrenoceptors antagonist). For prawn received TA for 1 h then challenged with Lactococcus garvieae at 2 × 10⁵ colony-forming units prawn^-1, the survival ratio of TA 1 nmol prawn^-1-injected prawn significantly increased by 20%, compared to the saline-challenged control or TA 10 nmol prawn^-1-injected prawn after 144 h of challenge. These results suggested that the level of dopamine release suppression regulated by TA resulted in the immunoenhancing or immunosuppressive effects in prawn, and the signaling pathways of TA in mediating immune function were through octopamine (OA)/TA receptors.

Muscle-derived Dpp regulates feeding initiation via endocrine modulation of brain dopamine biosynthesis

In animals, the brain regulates feeding behavior in response to local energy demands of peripheral tissues, which secrete orexigenic and anorexigenic hormones. Although skeletal muscle is a key peripheral tissue, it remains unknown whether muscle-secreted hormones regulate feeding. In Drosophila, we found that decapentaplegic (dpp), the homolog of human bone morphogenetic proteins BMP2 and BMP4, is a muscle-secreted factor (a myokine) that is induced by nutrient sensing and that circulates and signals to the brain. Muscle-restricted dpp RNAi promotes foraging and feeding initiation, whereas dpp overexpression reduces it. This regulation of feeding by muscle-derived Dpp stems from modulation of brain tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression and dopamine biosynthesis. Consistently, Dpp receptor signaling in dopaminergic neurons regulates TH expression and feeding initiation via the downstream transcriptional repressor Schnurri. Moreover, pharmacologic modulation of TH activity rescues the changes in feeding initiation due to modulation of dpp expression in muscle. These findings indicate that muscle-to-brain endocrine signaling mediated by the myokine Dpp regulates feeding behavior.

Chemoconnectomics: Mapping Chemical Transmission in Drosophila

We define the chemoconnectome (CCT) as the entire set of neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, neuropeptides, and their receptors underlying chemotransmission in an animal. We have generated knockout lines of Drosophila CCT genes for functional investigations and knockin lines containing Gal4 and other tools for examining gene expression and manipulating neuronal activities, with a versatile platform allowing genetic intersections and logic gates. CCT reveals the coexistence of specific transmitters but mutual exclusion of the major inhibitory and excitatory transmitters in the same neurons. One neuropeptide and five receptors were detected in glia, with octopamine β2 receptor functioning in glia. A pilot screen implicated 41 genes in sleep regulation, with the dopamine receptor Dop2R functioning in neurons expressing the peptides Dilp2 and SIFa. Thus, CCT is a novel concept, chemoconnectomics a new approach, and CCT tool lines a powerful resource for systematic investigations of chemical-transmission-mediated neural signaling circuits underlying behavior and cognition.

Identification and characterization of mushroom body neurons that regulate fat storage in Drosophila

Background

In an earlier study, we identified two neuronal populations, c673a and Fru-GAL4, that regulate fat storage in fruit flies. Both populations partially overlap with a structure in the insect brain known as the mushroom body (MB), which plays a critical role in memory formation. This overlap prompted us to examine whether the MB is also involved in fat storage homeostasis.

Methods

Using a variety of transgenic agents, we selectively manipulated the neural activity of different portions of the MB and associated neurons to decipher their roles in fat storage regulation.

Results

Our data show that silencing of MB neurons that project into the α’β’ lobes decreases de novo fatty acid synthesis and causes leanness, while sustained hyperactivation of the same neurons causes overfeeding and produces obesity. The α’β’ neurons oppose and dominate the fat regulating functions of the c673a and Fru-GAL4 neurons. We also show that MB neurons that project into the γ lobe also regulate fat storage, probably because they are a subset of the Fru neurons. We were able to identify input and output neurons whose activity affects fat storage, feeding, and metabolism. The activity of cholinergic output neurons that innervating the β’2 compartment (MBON-β’2mp and MBON-γ5β’2a) regulates food consumption, while glutamatergic output neurons innervating α’ compartments (MBON-γ2α’1 and MBON-α’2) control fat metabolism.

Conclusions

We identified a new fat storage regulating center, the α’β’ lobes of the MB. We also delineated the neuronal circuits involved in the actions of the α’β’ lobes, and showed that food intake and fat metabolism are controlled by separate sets of postsynaptic neurons that are segregated into different output pathways.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13064-018-0116-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

dSTIM- and Ral/Exocyst-Mediated Synaptic Release from Pupal Dopaminergic Neurons Sustains Drosophila Flight

Manifestation of appropriate behavior in adult animals requires developmental mechanisms that help in the formation of correctly wired neural circuits. Flight circuit development in Drosophila requires store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) through the STIM/Orai pathway. SOCE-associated flight deficits in adult Drosophila derive extensively from regulation of gene expression in pupal neurons, and one such SOCE-regulated gene encodes the small GTPase Ral. The cellular mechanism by which Ral helps in maturation of the flight circuit was not understood. Here, we show that knockdown of components of a Ral effector, the exocyst complex, in pupal neurons also leads to reduced flight bout durations, and this phenotype derives primarily from dopaminergic neurons. Importantly, synaptic release from pupal dopaminergic neurons is abrogated upon knockdown of dSTIM, Ral, or exocyst components. Ral overexpression restores the diminished synaptic release of dStim knockdown neurons as well as flight deficits associated with dSTIM knockdown in dopaminergic neurons. These results identify Ral-mediated vesicular release as an effector mechanism of neuronal SOCE in pupal dopaminergic neurons with functional consequences on flight behavior.

Dopamine signalling in locusts and other insects

Dopamine is an important catecholamine neurotransmitter in invertebrates and vertebrates. It is biochemically derived from tyrosine via L-DOPA. It is most abundant in the central nervous system, but can also be produced in e.g. epidermal cells. Dopamine has conserved roles in the control of movement, pleasure, motivation, arousal and memory between invertebrate and vertebrate animals. It is crucial for melanisation and sclerotisation, important processes for the formation of the exoskeleton of insects and immune function. In this brief review I will discuss some general aspects of insect dopamine biosynthesis and breakdown, dopamine receptors and their pharmacology. In addition, I will provide a glance on the multitude of biological functions of dopamine in insects. More detail is provided concerning the putative roles of dopamine in phase related phenomena in locusts. Finally, molecular and pharmacological adjustments of insect dopamine signalling are discussed in the light of possible approaches towards insect pest management.

Neural mechanisms of context-dependent processing of CO2 avoidance behavior in fruit flies

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, innately avoids even low levels of CO2. CO2 is part of the so-called Drosophila stress odor produced by stressed flies, but also a byproduct of fermenting fruit, a main food source, making the strong avoidance behavior somewhat surprising. Therefore, we addressed whether feeding states might influence the fly's behavior and processing of CO2. In a recent report, we showed that this innate behavior is differentially processed and modified according to the feeding state of the fly. Interestingly, we found that hungry flies require the function of the mushroom body, a higher brain center required for olfactory learning and memory, but thought to be dispensable for innate olfactory behaviors. In addition, we anatomically and functionally characterized a novel bilateral projection neuron connecting the CO2 sensory input to the mushroom body. This neuron was essential for processing of CO2 in the starved fly but not in the fed fly. In this Extra View article, we provide evidence for the potential involvement of the neuromodulator dopamine in state-dependent CO2 avoidance behavior. Taken together, our work demonstrates that CO2 avoidance behavior is mediated by alternative neural pathways in a context-dependent manner. Furthermore, it shows that the mushroom body is not only involved in processing of learned olfactory behavior, as previously suggested, but also in context-dependent innate olfaction.

A neuroprotective function of NSF1 sustains autophagy and lysosomal trafficking in Drosophila

A common feature of many neurodegenerative diseases is the accumulation of toxic proteins that disrupt vital cellular functions. Degradative pathways such as autophagy play an important protective role in breaking down misfolded and long-lived proteins. Neurons are particularly vulnerable to defects in these pathways, but many of the details regarding the link between autophagy and neurodegeneration remain unclear. We previously found that temperature-sensitive paralytic mutants in Drosophila are enriched for those exhibiting age-dependent neurodegeneration. Here we show that one of these mutants, comatose (comt), in addition to locomotor defects, displays shortened lifespan and progressive neurodegeneration, including loss of dopaminerigic (DA) neurons. comt encodes N-ethyl-maleimide sensitive fusion protein (NSF1), which has a well-documented role in synaptic transmission. However, the neurodegenerative phenotypes we observe in comt mutants do not appear to depend on defects in synaptic transmission, but rather from their inability to sustain autophagy under stress, due at least in part to a defect in trafficking of lysosomal proteases such as cathepsin-L. Conversely, overexpression of NSF1 rescues α-synuclein-induced toxicity of DA neurons in a model of Parkinson's disease. Our results demonstrate a neuroprotective role for NSF1 that involves mediation of fusion events crucial for degradative pathways such as autophagy, providing greater understanding of cellular dysfunctions common to several neurodegenerative diseases.

A dopamine receptor contributes to paraquat-induced neurotoxicity in Drosophila

Long-term exposure to environmental oxidative stressors, like the herbicide paraquat (PQ), has been linked to the development of Parkinson's disease (PD), the most frequent neurodegenerative movement disorder. Paraquat is thus frequently used in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and other animal models to study PD and the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons (DNs) that characterizes this disease. Here, we show that a D1-like dopamine (DA) receptor, DAMB, actively contributes to the fast central nervous system (CNS) failure induced by PQ in the fly. First, we found that a long-term increase in neuronal DA synthesis reduced DAMB expression and protected against PQ neurotoxicity. Secondly, a striking age-related decrease in PQ resistance in young adult flies correlated with an augmentation of DAMB expression. This aging-associated increase in oxidative stress vulnerability was not observed in a DAMB-deficient mutant. Thirdly, targeted inactivation of this receptor in glutamatergic neurons (GNs) markedly enhanced the survival of Drosophila exposed to either PQ or neurotoxic levels of DA, whereas, conversely, DAMB overexpression in these cells made the flies more vulnerable to both compounds. Fourthly, a mutation in the Drosophila ryanodine receptor (RyR), which inhibits activity-induced increase in cytosolic Ca(2+), also strongly enhanced PQ resistance. Finally, we found that DAMB overexpression in specific neuronal populations arrested development of the fly and that in vivo stimulation of either DNs or GNs increased PQ susceptibility. This suggests a model for DA receptor-mediated potentiation of PQ-induced neurotoxicity. Further studies of DAMB signaling in Drosophila could have implications for better understanding DA-related neurodegenerative disorders in humans.

Alternative oxidase rescues mitochondria-mediated dopaminergic cell loss in Drosophila

Mitochondrial dysfunction is commonly observed in degenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease that are characterized by the progressive and selective loss of neuronal subpopulations. It is currently unclear, however, whether mitochondrial dysfunction is primary or secondary to other pathogenic processes that eventually lead to age-related neurodegeneration. Here we establish an in vivo Drosophila model of mitochondrial dysfunction by downregulating the catalytic subunit of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymerase in cholinergic, serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons. The resulting flies are characterized by lowered respiratory chain activity, premature aging, age-related motor deficits as well as adult onset, progressive and cell-type-specific, dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Using this model, we find that associated lethality can be partially rescued by targeting PINK1/parkin signaling or Drp1, both of which have been implicated in mitochondrial dynamics and Parkinson's disease. Bypassing mitochondrial complex III/IV deficiencies with Alternative oxidase (AOX), however, fully restores ATP levels and prevents dopaminergic neurodegeneration. In contrast, ATP levels and neurodegeneration are not rescued when mitochondrial complex I deficiencies are bypassed with NADH-Q oxidoreductase. Our results demonstrate that mtDNA-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction can cause age-related and cell-type-specific neurodegeneration which AOX is able to alleviate and indicate that AOX or its surrogates may prove useful as a therapeutic tool for limiting respiratory chain deficiencies caused by mtDNA decline in healthy aging and neurodegenerative disease.

p38 MAPKs regulate the expression of genes in the dopamine synthesis pathway through phosphorylation of NR4A nuclear receptors

In Drosophila, the melanization reaction is an important defense mechanism against injury and invasion of microorganisms. Drosophila tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, also known as Pale) and dopa decarboxylase (Ddc), key enzymes in the dopamine synthesis pathway, underlie the melanin synthesis by providing the melanin precursors dopa and dopamine, respectively. It has been shown that expression of Drosophila TH and Ddc is induced in various physiological and pathological conditions, including bacterial challenge; however, the mechanism involved has not been fully elucidated. Here, we show that ectopic activation of p38 MAPK induces TH and Ddc expression, leading to upregulation of melanization in the Drosophila cuticle. This p38-dependent melanization was attenuated by knockdown of TH and Ddc, as well as by that of Drosophila HR38, a member of the NR4A family of nuclear receptors. In mammalian cells, p38 phosphorylated mammalian NR4As and Drosophila HR38 and potentiated these NR4As to transactivate a promoter containing NR4A-binding elements, with this transactivation being, at least in part, dependent on the phosphorylation. This suggests an evolutionarily conserved role for p38 MAPKs in the regulation of NR4As. Thus, p38-regulated gene induction through NR4As appears to function in the dopamine synthesis pathway and may be involved in immune and stress responses.

Behavioral consequences of dopamine deficiency in the Drosophila central nervous system

The neuromodulatory function of dopamine (DA) is an inherent feature of nervous systems of all animals. To learn more about the function of neural DA in Drosophila, we generated mutant flies that lack tyrosine hydroxylase, and thus DA biosynthesis, selectively in the nervous system. We found that DA is absent or below detection limits in the adult brain of these flies. Despite this, they have a lifespan similar to WT flies. These mutants show reduced activity, extended sleep time, locomotor deficits that increase with age, and they are hypophagic. Whereas odor and electrical shock avoidance are not affected, aversive olfactory learning is abolished. Instead, DA-deficient flies have an apparently "masochistic" tendency to prefer the shock-associated odor 2 h after conditioning. Similarly, sugar preference is absent, whereas sugar stimulation of foreleg taste neurons induces normal proboscis extension. Feeding the DA precursor L-DOPA to adults substantially rescues the learning deficit as well as other impaired behaviors that were tested. DA-deficient flies are also defective in positive phototaxis, without alteration in visual perception and optomotor response. Surprisingly, visual tracking is largely maintained, and these mutants still possess an efficient spatial orientation memory. Our findings show that flies can perform complex brain functions in the absence of neural DA, whereas specific behaviors involving, in particular, arousal and choice require normal levels of this neuromodulator.

Increased dopamine level enhances male-male courtship in Drosophila

Sexual behavior between males is observed in many species, but the biological factors involved are poorly known. In mammals, manipulation of dopamine has revealed the role of this neuromodulator on male sexual behavior. We used genetic and pharmacological approaches to manipulate the dopamine level in dopaminergic cells in Drosophila and investigated the consequence of this manipulation on male-male courtship behavior. Males with increased dopamine level showed enhanced propensity to court other males but did not change their courtship toward virgin females, general olfactory response, general gustatory response, or locomotor activity. Our results indicate that the high intensity of male-male interaction shown by these manipulated males was related to their altered sensory perception of other males.

Disruption of dopamine homeostasis underlies selective neurodegeneration mediated by alpha-synuclein

A key challenge in Parkinson's disease research is to understand mechanisms underlying selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons mediated by genetic factors such as alpha-synuclein (alpha-Syn). The present study examined whether dopamine (DA)-dependent oxidative stress underlies alpha-Syn-mediated neurodegeneration using Drosophila primary neuronal cultures. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) was used to identify live dopaminergic neurons in primary cultures prepared on a marked photoetched coverslip, which allowed us to repeatedly access preidentified dopaminergic neurons at different time points in a non-invasive manner. This live tracking of GFP-marked dopaminergic neurons revealed age-dependent neurodegeneration mediated by a mutant human alpha-Syn (A30P). Degeneration was rescued when alpha-Syn neuronal cultures were incubated with 1 mm glutathione from Day 3 after culturing. Furthermore, depletion of cytoplasmic DA by 100 microm alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine completely rescued the early stage of alpha-Syn-mediated dopaminergic cell loss, demonstrating that DA plays a major role in oxidative stress-dependent neurodegeneration mediated by alpha-Syn. In contrast, overexpression of a Drosophila tyrosine hydroxylase gene (dTH1) alone caused DA neurodegeneration by enhanced DA synthesis in the cytoplasm. Age-dependent dopaminergic cell loss was comparable in alpha-Syn vs dTH1-overexpressed neuronal cultures, indicating that increased DA levels in the cytoplasm is a critical change downstream of mutant alpha-Syn function. Finally, overexpression of a Drosophila vesicular monoamine transporter rescued alpha-Syn-mediated neurodegeneration through enhanced sequestration of cytoplasmic DA into synaptic vesicles, further indicating that a main cause of selective neurodegeneration is alpha-Syn-induced disruption of DA homeostasis. All of these results demonstrate that elevated cytoplasmic DA is a main factor underlying the early stage of alpha-Syn-mediated neurodegeneration.

Maternal and embryonic sources of tyrosine hydroxylase during Drosophila embryogenesis

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the enzyme which catalyzes the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA and is rate limiting in catecholamine biosynthesis, is biochemically expressed in late stage wild-type Drosophila oocytes as well as in early embryogenesis. Null mutant alleles of TH (pale) are embryonic lethals with death occurring in the late embryonic or early larval periods of development. Staging of embryos demonstrated that inhibition of the enzymatic activity of TH by alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (alphaMT) retards the progression of embryos primarily during the organogenesis stages of embryonic development, with lesser effects on earlier and later stages. On the other hand, time of gene action studies with a conditional temperature sensitive pale mutant (ple(ts1)) at its restrictive temperature (29 degrees C) indicate an onset of tyrosine hydroxylase gene action beginning in the oocyte stage of development. Thus, maternal as well as embryonic effects on the secretion and/or functionality of this enzyme may play roles in the early developmental program of the organism.

Insect cytokine, growth-blocking peptide, is a primary regulator of melanin-synthesis enzymes in armyworm larval cuticle

The cuticles of most insect larvae have a variety of melanin patterns that function in the insects' interactions with their biotic and abiotic environments. Larvae of the armyworm Pseudaletia separata have black and white stripes running longitudinally along the body axis. This pattern is emphasized after the last larval molt by an increase in the contrast between the lines. We have previously shown that 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (Dopa) decarboxylase (DDC) is activated during the molt period by preferential enhancement of its transcription in the epidermal cells beneath the black stripes. This study demonstrated that tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression is activated synchronously with DDC. Furthermore, enhancement of DDC and TH transcription is due to an increase in cyotoplasmic Ca(2+), which is induced by the insect cytokine, growth-blocking peptide (GBP). Enhanced gene expression for both enzymes was induced by substitution of the calcium ionophore A23187, and completely blocked by EGTA. A GBP-induced increase in cytoplasmic Ca(2+) was seen in epidermal cells under the black stripes but not those beneath the white stripes, suggesting that a difference in Ca(2+) concentration in stripe cells leads to the specific expression of DDC and TH genes. Based on the fact that epidermal cells beneath the white stripes contain abundant granules composed mainly of uric acid, which can form a complex with Ca(2+) and hence decrease its free concentration, we discuss the possibility that uric acid, as well as GBP, contributes to the difference in cytoplasmic Ca(2+) within the epidermal cells.

Detection of GFP during nervous system development in Drosophila melanogaster

Using the vital marker GFP and its spectral variants, it is possible to visualize multiple proteins in individual cells and thereby monitor embryonic development on a cellular and molecular level. In the following chapter we describe how to prepare Drosophila embryos or larvae for live imaging or immunohistochemical staining and provide some guidelines for optimal GFP detection.

Loss of spastic paraplegia gene atlastin induces age-dependent death of dopaminergic neurons in Drosophila

Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are human genetic disorders causing increased stiffness and overactive muscle reflexes in the lower extremities. atlastin (atl) is one of the major genes in which mutations result in HSP. We generated a Drosophila model of HSP that has a null mutation in atl. As they aged, atl null flies were paralyzed by mechanical shock such as bumping or vortexing. Furthermore, the flies showed age-dependent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. These phenotypes were rescued by targeted expression of atl in dopaminergic neurons or feeding L-DOPA or SK&F 38393, an agonist of dopamine receptor. Our data raised the possibility that one of the causes of HSP disease symptoms in human patients with alt mutations is malfunction or degeneration of dopaminergic neurons.

A developmental role for catecholamines in Drosophila behavior

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the enzyme which catalyzes the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA and is the rate limiting step in catecholamine biosynthesis, is genetically expressed during development in Drosophila. Null mutant alleles of the single copy gene which codes for this enzyme are developmentally lethal as is a conditional TH mutant at its restrictive temperature. In adult flies, inhibition of TH by alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (alphaMT) decreases locomotor activity in a dose-dependent manner. This behavioral effect is accompanied by reductions in brain levels of dopamine, the primary CNS catecholamine in Drosophila, and can be prevented by the coadministration of L-DOPA. Similar effects are found with reserpine and at the restrictive temperature in flies with a temperature conditional mutation for TH. In agreement with published studies in mammals, inhibition of TH by alphaMT during Drosophila development results in enhanced expression of this enzyme in the progeny of surviving adults. This biochemical outcome is accompanied behaviorally by increased sensitivity to the locomotor effects of both alphaMT and reserpine, drugs which act via depletion of brain catecholamines. Since TH is the rate limiting enzyme responsible for the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA and L-DOPA is converted to dopamine by aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD), the results indicate that depletion of catecholamine levels in the fly embryo results in increased dopamine biosynthesis in the next generation accompanied by alterations in behavior.

Parkin negatively regulates JNK pathway in the dopaminergic neurons of Drosophila

Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, has been found to be responsible for autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism characterized primarily by selective loss of dopaminergic neurons with subsequent defects in movements. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this neuron loss remain elusive. Here, we characterized Drosophila parkin loss-of-function mutants, which exhibit shrinkage of dopaminergic neurons with decreased tyrosine hydroxylase level and impaired locomotion. The behavioral defect of parkin mutant flies was partially restored by administering L-DOPA, and the dopamine level in the brains of parkin mutant flies was highly decreased. Intriguingly, we found that c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is strongly activated in the dopaminergic neurons of parkin mutants and that impaired dopaminergic neuron phenotypes are dependent on the activation of the JNK signaling pathway. In consistent with this, our epistatic analysis and mammalian cell studies showed that Parkin inhibits the JNK signaling pathway in an E3 activity-dependent manner. These results suggest that loss of Parkin function up-regulates the JNK signaling pathway, which may contribute to the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons in Drosophila parkin mutants and perhaps autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism patients.

Tyramine and octopamine: ruling behavior and metabolism

Octopamine (OA) and tyramine (TA) are the invertebrate counterparts of the vertebrate adrenergic transmitters. They are decarboxylation products of the amino acid tyrosine, with TA as the biological precursor of OA. Nevertheless, both compounds are independent neurotransmitters that act through G protein-coupled receptors. OA modulates a plethora of behaviors and peripheral and sense organs, enabling the insect to respond correctly to external stimuli. Because these two phenolamines are the only biogenic amines whose physiological significance is presumably restricted to invertebrates, pharmacologists have focused their attention on the corresponding receptors, which are still believed to represent promising targets for new insecticides. Recent progress made on all levels of OA and TA research has enabled researchers to understand better the molecular events underlying the control of complex behaviors.