Variations in hospitalisation costs for acute myocardial infarction - a comparison across Europe

Cost-effectiveness of applying high-sensitivity troponin I to a score for cardiovascular risk prediction in asymptomatic population

INTRODUCTION

Risk stratification scores such as the European Systematic COronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE) are used to guide individuals on cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention. Adding high-sensitivity troponin I (hsTnI) to such risk scores has the potential to improve accuracy of CVD prediction. We investigated how applying hsTnI in addition to SCORE may impact management, outcome, and cost-effectiveness.

METHODS

Characteristics of 72,190 apparently healthy individuals from the Biomarker for Cardiovascular Risk Assessment in Europe (BiomarCaRE) project were included into a discrete-event simulation comparing two strategies for assessing CVD risk. The standard strategy reflecting current practice employed SCORE (SCORE); the alternative strategy involved adding hsTnI information for further stratifying SCORE risk categories (S-SCORE). Individuals were followed over ten years from baseline examination to CVD event, death or end of follow-up. The model tracked the occurrence of events and calculated direct costs of screening, prevention, and treatment from a European health system perspective. Cost-effectiveness was expressed as incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) in € per quality-adjusted life year (QALYs) gained during 10 years of follow-up. Outputs were validated against observed rates, and results were tested in deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

S-SCORE yielded a change in management for 10.0% of individuals, and a reduction in CVD events (4.85% vs. 5.38%, p<0.001) and mortality (6.80% vs. 7.04%, p<0.001). S-SCORE led to 23 (95%CI: 20-26) additional event-free years and 7 (95%CI: 5-9) additional QALYs per 1,000 subjects screened, and resulted in a relative risk reduction for CVD of 9.9% (95%CI: 7.3-13.5%) with a number needed to screen to prevent one event of 183 (95%CI: 172 to 203). S-SCORE increased costs per subject by 187€ (95%CI: 177 € to 196 €), leading to an ICER of 27,440€/QALY gained. Sensitivity analysis was performed with eligibility for treatment being the most sensitive.

CONCLUSION

Adding a person's hsTnI value to SCORE can impact clinical decision making and eventually improves QALYs and is cost-effective compared to CVD prevention strategies using SCORE alone. Stratifying SCORE risk classes for hsTnI would likely offer cost-effective alternatives, particularly when targeting higher risk groups.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of pressure-controlled intermittent coronary sinus occlusion in elective percutaneous coronary intervention

OBJECTIVES

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) represents the standard treatment for ST-elevated myocardial infarction, nevertheless, mortality and heart failures are frequent. Pressure-controlled intermittent coronary sinus occlusion (PiCSO) might reduce infarct size showing better patients' outcomes. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of PCI+PiCSO compared to PCI from the National Healthcare Service (NHS) perspective in Italy.

METHODS

A Markov model was developed to estimate life years (LYs), quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and costs. A micro-costing analysis has been performed to inform the cost of PCI+PiCSO procedure. Sensitivity analyses were performed to test the robustness of the model results.

RESULTS

Considering a willingness-to-pay threshold of 50,000€/QALY for the ICUR and a cost for PCI+PiCSO procedure of 14,654€, the innovative strategy may be cost-effective compared to PCI alone from the Italian NHS perspective, showing an ICUR of 17,530€/QALY (ICER 14,631€/LY) over a lifetime horizon; the probabilistic sensitivity analysis showed that PCI+PiCSO is cost-effective in 78.8% of simulations.Considering the above mentioned willingness-to-pay threshold, PCI+PiCSO strategy would be cost-effective over a lifetime horizon considering a cost for PCI+PiCSO procedure lower than 28,160€.

CONCLUSION

PCI+PiCSO procedure may be considered a cost-effective technology that allows reducing cardiac events, while improving patients' life expectancy and quality of life.

Myocardial Infarction Complications After Surgery in Vietnam: Estimates of Incremental Cost, Readmission Risk, and Length of Hospital Stay

Myocardial infarction is a considerable burden on public health. However, there is a lack of information about its economic impact on both the individual and national levels. This study aims to estimate the incremental cost, readmission risk, and length of hospital stay due to myocardial infarction as a post-operative complication. We used data from a standardized national system managed by the Vietnam Social Insurance database. The original sample size was 1,241,893 surgical patients who had undergone one of seven types of surgery. A propensity score matching method was applied to create a matched sample for cost analysis. A generalized linear model was used to estimate direct treatment costs, the length of stay, and the effect of the complication on the readmission of surgical patients. Myocardial infarction occurs most frequently after vascular surgery. Patients with a myocardial infarction complication were more likely to experience readmission within 30 and 90 days, with an OR of 3.45 (95%CI: 2.92–4.08) and 4.39 (95%CI: 3.78–5.10), respectively. The increments of total costs at 30 and 90 days due to post-operative myocardial infarction were 4,490.9 USD (95%CI: 3882.3–5099.5) and 4,724.6 USD (95%CI: 4111.5–5337.8) per case, while the increases in length of stay were 4.9 (95%CI: 3.6–6.2) and 5.7 (95%CI: 4.2–7.2) per case, respectively. Perioperative myocardial infarction contributes significantly to medical costs for the individual and the national economy. Patients with perioperative myocardial infarction are more likely to be readmitted and face a longer treatment duration.

From centralized DRG costing to decentralized TDABC-assessing the feasibility of hospital cost accounting for decision-making in Denmark

BACKGROUND

The objective is to examine hospital cost accounts to understand the foundation upon which healthcare decisions are based. More specifically, the aim is to add insights to accounting practices and their applicability towards a newly establish value-based agenda with a focus on patient-level cost data.

METHODS

We apply a cost accounting framework developed to position and understand hospital cost practices in relation to government requirements. Allocated cost account data from 2015 from all Danish hospitals were collected and analyzed. These cost accounts lay the foundation for diagnosis related group (DRG) rate setting. We further compare the data's limitations and potential in a value-based healthcare (VBHC) agenda with the aim of implementing time-driven activity based costing (TDABC).

RESULTS

We find exceedingly aggregated department-level data that are not tied to patient information. We investigate these data and find large data skewness in the current system, mainly due to structural variances within hospitals. We further demonstrate the current costs data's lack of suitability for VBHC but with suggestions of how cost data can become applicable for such an approach, which will increase cost data transparency and, thus, provide a better foundation for both local and national decision-making.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings raise concerns about the cost accounts' ability to provide valid information in healthcare decision-making due to a lack of transparency and obvious variances that distort budgets and production-value estimates. The standardization of costs stemming from hospitals with large organizational differences has significant implications on the fairness of resource allocation and decision-making at large. Thus, for hospitals to become more cost efficient, a substantially more detailed clinically bottom-led cost account system is essential to provide better information for prioritization in health.

Costs of clinical events in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in the Netherlands: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is an established risk factor for cardiovascular and nephropathic events. In the Netherlands, prevalence of T2DM is expected to be as high as 8% by 2025. This will result in significant clinical and economic impact, highlighting the need for well-informed reimbursement decisions for new treatments. However, availability and consistent use of costing methodologies is limited.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to systematically review recent costing data for T2DM-related cardiovascular and nephropathic events in the Netherlands.

METHODS

A systematic literature review in PubMed and Embase was conducted to identify available Dutch cost data for T2DM-related events, published in the last decade. Information extracted included costs, source, study population, and costing perspective. Finally, papers were evaluated using the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards (CHEERS).

RESULTS

Out of initially 570 papers, 36 agreed with the inclusion criteria. From these studies, 150 cost estimates for T2DM-related clinical events were identified. In total, 29 cost estimates were reported for myocardial infarction (range: €196-€27,038), 61 for stroke (€495-€54,678), fifteen for heart failure (€325-€16,561), 24 for renal failure (€2,438-€91,503), and seventeen for revascularisation (€3,000-€37,071). Only four estimates for transient ischaemic attack were available, ranging from €587 to €2,470. Adherence to CHEERS was generally high.

CONCLUSIONS

The most expensive clinical events were related to renal failure, while TIA was the least expensive event. Generally, there was substantial variation in reported cost estimates for T2DM-related events. Costing of clinical events should be improved and preferably standardised, as accurate and consistent results in economic models are desired.

Circulating microRNA-1 in the diagnosis and predicting prognosis of patients with chest pain: a prospective cohort study

Background

To investigate the early diagnostic and prognostic value of microRNA-1 in patients with acute chest pain.

Methods

This study enrolled 341 patients attacked by chest pain within 3 h, and another 100 volunteers as control group. Circulating microRNA-1 was collected and determined by real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The clinical follow-up period was 720 days.

Results

There were 174 patients in acute myocardial infarction (AMI) group, 167 in non-AMI group. The relative expression of microRNA-1 was significantly increased within 3 h in AMI group, and it continued rising within 12 h, lower at 24 h than that 12 h in AMI group without reperfusion therapy. Otherwise, microRNA-1 concentration was markedly low at 12 h after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in AMI group. The 95% reference range of circulating microRNA-1 was 0.171–0.653. It was significantly available for microRNA-1 to early diagnose AMI with an optimal cutoff value of 2.215 and diagnostic accuracy could be improved when combined with cardiac troponin I. It was not statistically significant for microRNA-1 to forecast future AMI but might prognose mortality of 720 days in chest pain patients. In patients with chest pain, microRNA-1 concentration was high with major adverse cardiac events within 30 days, low with high overall survival within 720 days.

Conclusions

Circulating microRNA-1 might diagnose early AMI and predict the prognosis of patients with chest pain.

Hospitalizations for Cardiovascular Disease After Liver Transplantation in the United States

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of post-liver transplant death, and variable care patterns may affect outcomes. We aimed to describe epidemiology and outcomes of inpatient CVD care across US hospitals. Using a merged data set from the 2002-2011 Nationwide Inpatient Sample and the American Hospital Association Annual Survey, we evaluated liver transplant patients admitted primarily with myocardial infarction (MI), stroke (cerebrovascular accident [CVA]), congestive heart failure (CHF), dysrhythmias, cardiac arrest (CA), or malignant hypertension. Patient-level data include demographics, Charlson comorbidity index, and CVD diagnoses. Facility-level variables included ownership status, payer-mix, hospital resources, teaching status, and physician/nursing-to-bed ratios. We used generalized estimating equations to evaluate patient- and hospital-level factors associated with mortality. There were 4763 hospitalizations that occurred in 153 facilities (transplant hospitals, n = 80). CVD hospitalizations increased overall by 115% over the decade (P < 0.01). CVA and MI declined over time (both P < 0.05), but CHF and dysrhythmia grew significantly (both P < 0.03); a total of 19% of hospitalizations were for multiple CVD diagnoses. Transplant hospitals had lower comorbidity patients (P < 0.001) and greater resource intensity including presence of cardiac intensive care unit, interventional radiology, operating rooms, teaching status, and nursing density (all P < 0.01). Transplant and nontransplant hospitals had similar unadjusted mortality (overall, 3.9%, P = 0.55; by diagnosis, all P > 0.07). Transplant hospitals had significantly longer overall length of stay, higher total costs, and more high-cost hospitalizations (all P < 0.05). After risk adjustment, transplant hospitals were associated with higher mortality and high-cost hospitalizations. In conclusion, CVD after liver transplant is evolving and responsible for growing rates of inpatient care. Transplant hospitals are associated with poor outcomes, even after risk adjustment for patient and hospital characteristics, which may be attributable to selective referral of certain patient phenotypes but could also be related to differences in quality of care. Further study is warranted.

Resource Use and Burden of Hospitalization, Outpatient, Physician, and Drug Costs in Short- and Long-term Care After Acute Myocardial Infarction

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the resource use and cost burden of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) beyond the index event. We examined resource use and care costs during the first and each subsequent year, among patients with incident AMI.

METHODS

Patients aged ≥18 years who were admitted with incident AMI at emergency departments or hospitals in Alberta, Canada, between April 2004 and March 2014 were included. Incident cases were defined as those without an AMI hospitalization in the previous 10 years. Inpatient, outpatient, practitioner claims, drug claims, and vital statistics were linked and follow-up data were available until March 2016. Resource use and care costs per patient for each year after the AMI were calculated.

RESULTS

The analysis included 41,210 patients with incident AMI (non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction [NSTEMI] = 50.8%, ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction = 36.8%, and undefined myocardial infarction [MI] = 12.5%). Resource use and care costs were highest during the first year. Compared with other MI groups, patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction had more frequent outpatient visits (mean 1.64 vs 0.99 [NSTEMI] and 0.87 [undefined MI] visits) but spent fewer days in hospital (mean 7.72 vs 9.23 [NSTEMI] and 8.5 [undefined MI] days) during the first year. AMI costs were $19,842 during the first year and $845 per year for the next 5 years. Hospitalization costs accounted for the majority of costs during the first year (81.1%), whereas drug costs did for the next 5 years (62.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

The long-term annual cost burden of AMI is modest compared with care costs during the first year. Although hospitalization dominates first year costs, pharmaceuticals do so in the long term.

0/1-Hour Triage Algorithm for Myocardial Infarction in Patients With Renal Dysfunction

BACKGROUND

The European Society of Cardiology recommends a 0/1-hour algorithm for rapid rule-out and rule-in of non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction using high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) concentrations irrespective of renal function. Because patients with renal dysfunction (RD) frequently present with increased hs-cTn concentrations even in the absence of non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction, concern has been raised regarding the performance of the 0/1-hour algorithm in RD.

METHODS

In a prospective multicenter diagnostic study enrolling unselected patients presenting with suspected non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction to the emergency department, we assessed the diagnostic performance of the European Society of Cardiology 0/1-hour algorithm using hs-cTnT and hs-cTnI in patients with RD, defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2, and compared it to patients with normal renal function. The final diagnosis was centrally adjudicated by 2 independent cardiologists using all available information, including cardiac imaging. Safety was quantified as sensitivity in the rule-out zone, accuracy as the specificity in the rule-in zone, and efficacy as the proportion of the overall cohort assigned to either rule-out or rule-in based on the 0- and 1-hour sample.

RESULTS

Among 3254 patients, RD was present in 487 patients (15%). The prevalence of non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction was substantially higher in patients with RD compared with patients with normal renal function (31% versus 13%, P<0.001). Using hs-cTnT, patients with RD had comparable sensitivity of rule-out (100.0% [95% confidence interval {CI}, 97.6-100.0] versus 99.2% [95% CI, 97.6-99.8]; P=0.559), lower specificity of rule-in (88.7% [95% CI, 84.8-91.9] versus 96.5% [95% CI, 95.7-97.2]; P<0.001), and lower overall efficacy (51% versus 81%, P<0.001), mainly driven by a much lower percentage of patients eligible for rule-out (18% versus 68%, P<0.001) compared with patients with normal renal function. Using hs-cTnI, patients with RD had comparable sensitivity of rule-out (98.6% [95% CI, 95.0-99.8] versus 98.5% [95% CI, 96.5-99.5]; P=1.0), lower specificity of rule-in (84.4% [95% CI, 79.9-88.3] versus 91.7% [95% CI, 90.5-92.9]; P<0.001), and lower overall efficacy (54% versus 76%, P<0.001; proportion ruled out, 18% versus 58%, P<0.001) compared with patients with normal renal function.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with RD, the safety of the European Society of Cardiology 0/1-hour algorithm is high, but specificity of rule-in and overall efficacy are decreased. Modifications of the rule-in and rule-out thresholds did not improve the safety or overall efficacy of the 0/1-hour algorithm.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00470587.

The costs of repatriating an ill seafarer: a micro-costing approach

Seafarers sail the high seas around the globe. In case of illness, they are protected by international regulations stating that the employers must pay all expenses in relation to repatriation, but very little is known about the cost of these repatriations. The objective of this study was to estimate the financial burden of repatriations in case of illness. We applied a local approach, a micro-costing method, with an employer perspective using four case vignettes: I) Acute myocardial infarction (AMI), II) Malignant hypertension, III) Appendicitis and IV) Malaria. Direct cost data were derived from the Danish Maritime Authority while for indirect costs estimations were applied using the friction cost approach. The average total costs of repatriation varied for the four case vignettes; AMI (98,823 EUR), Malignant hypertension (47,597 EUR), Appendicitis (58,639 EUR) and Malaria (23,792 EUR) mainly due to large variations in the average direct costs which ranged between 9560 euro in the malaria case and 77,255 in the AMI case. Repatriating an ill seafarer is a costly operation and employers have a financial interest in promoting the health of seafarers by introducing or further strengthen cost-effective prevention programs and hereby reducing the number of repatriations.

Comparison of the treatment practice and hospitalization cost of percutaneous coronary intervention between a teaching hospital and a general hospital in Malaysia: A cross sectional study

Introduction

The increasing disease burden of coronary artery disease (CAD) calls for sustainable cardiac service. Teaching hospitals and general hospitals in Malaysia are main providers of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), a common treatment for CAD. Few studies have analyzed the contemporary data on local cardiac facilities. Service expansion and budget allocation require cost evidence from various providers. We aim to compare the patient characteristics, procedural outcomes, and cost profile between a teaching hospital (TH) and a general hospital (GH).

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted from the healthcare providers’ perspective from January 1^st to June 30^th 2014. TH is a university teaching hospital in the capital city, while GH is a state-level general hospital. Both are government-funded cardiac referral centers. Clinical data was extracted from a national cardiac registry. Cost data was collected using mixed method of top-down and bottom-up approaches. Total hospitalization cost per PCI patient was summed up from the costs of ward admission and cardiac catheterization laboratory utilization. Clinical characteristics were compared with chi-square and independent t-test, while hospitalization length and cost were analyzed using Mann-Whitney test.

Results

The mean hospitalization cost was RM 12,117 (USD 3,366) at GH and RM 16,289 (USD 4,525) at TH. The higher cost at TH can be attributed to worse patients’ comorbidities and cardiac status. In contrast, GH recorded a lower mean length of stay as more patients had same-day discharge, resulting in 29% reduction in mean cost of admission compared to TH. For both hospitals, PCI consumables accounted for the biggest proportion of total cost.

Conclusions

The high PCI consumables cost highlighted the importance of cost-effective purchasing mechanism. Findings on the heterogeneity of the patients, treatment practice and hospitalization cost between TH and GH are vital for formulation of cost-saving strategies to ensure sustainable and equitable cardiac service in Malaysia.

Hospital Phenotypes in the Management of Patients Admitted for Acute Myocardial Infarction

OBJECTIVES

To characterize hospital phenotypes by their combined utilization pattern of percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI), coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) procedures, and intensive care unit (ICU) admissions for patients hospitalized for acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

RESEARCH DESIGN

Using the Premier Analytical Database, we identified 129,138 hospitalizations for AMI from 246 hospitals with the capacity for performing open-heart surgery during 2010-2013. We calculated year-specific, risk-standardized estimates of PCI procedure rates, CABG procedure rates, and ICU admission rates for each hospital, adjusting for patient clinical characteristics and within-hospital correlation of patients. We used a mixture modeling approach to identify groups of hospitals (ie, hospital phenotypes) that exhibit distinct longitudinal patterns of risk-standardized PCI, CABG, and ICU admission rates.

RESULTS

We identified 3 distinct phenotypes among the 246 hospitals: (1) high PCI-low CABG-high ICU admission (39.2% of the hospitals), (2) high PCI-low CABG-low ICU admission (30.5%), and (3) low PCI-high CABG-moderate ICU admission (30.4%). Hospitals in the high PCI-low CABG-high ICU admission phenotype had significantly higher risk-standardized in-hospital costs and 30-day risk-standardized payment yet similar risk-standardized mortality and readmission rates compared with hospitals in the low PCI-high CABG-moderate ICU admission phenotype. Hospitals in these phenotypes differed by geographic region.

CONCLUSIONS

Hospitals differ in how they manage patients hospitalized for AMI. Their distinctive practice patterns suggest that some hospital phenotypes may be more successful in producing good outcomes at lower cost.

Assessing physician productivity following Norwegian hospital reform: A panel and data envelopment analysis

BACKGROUND

Although health care reforms may improve efficiency at the macro level, less is known regarding their effects on the utilization of health care personnel. Following the 2002 Norwegian hospital reform, we studied the productivity of the physician workforce and the effect of personnel mix on this measure in all nineteen Norwegian hospitals from 2001 to 2013.

METHODS

We used panel analysis and non-parametric data envelopment analysis (DEA) to study physician productivity defined as patient treatments per full-time equivalent (FTE) physician. Resource variables were FTE and salary costs of physicians, nurses, secretaries, and other personnel. Patient metrics were number of patients treated by hospitalization, daycare, and outpatient treatments, as well as corresponding diagnosis-related group (DRG) scores accounting for differences in patient mix. Research publications and the fraction of residents/FTE physicians were used as proxies for research and physician training.

RESULTS

The number of patients treated increased by 47% and the DRG scores by 35%, but there were no significant increases in any of the activity measures per FTE physician. Total DRG per FTE physician declined by 6% (p < 0.05). In the panel analysis, more nurses and secretaries per FTE physician correlated positively with physician productivity, whereas physician salary was neutral. In 2013, there was a 12%-80% difference between the hospitals with the highest and lowest physician productivity in the differing treatment modalities. In the DEA, cost efficiency did not change in the study period, but allocative efficiency decreased significantly. Bootstrapped estimates indicated that the use of physicians was too high and the use of auxiliary nurses and secretaries was too low.

CONCLUSIONS

Our measures of physician productivity declined from 2001 to 2013. More support staff was a significant variable for predicting physician productivity. Personnel mix developments in the study period were unfavorable with respect to physician productivity.

Patient-level costs of major cardiovascular conditions: a review of the international literature

OBJECTIVE

Robust cost estimates of cardiovascular (CV) events are required for assessing health care interventions aimed at reducing the economic burden of major adverse CV events. This review synthesizes international cost estimates of CV events.

METHODS

MEDLINE database was searched electronically for English language studies published during 2007-2012, with cost estimates for CV events of interest - unstable angina, myocardial infarction, heart failure, stroke, and CV revascularization. Included studies provided at least one estimate of patient-level direct costs in adults for any identified country. Information on study characteristics and cost estimates were collected. All costs were adjusted for inflation to 2013 values.

RESULTS

Across the 114 studies included, the average cost was US $6,466 for unstable angina, $11,664 for acute myocardial infarction, $11,686 for acute heart failure, $11,635 for acute ischemic stroke, $37,611 for coronary artery bypass graft, and $13,501 for percutaneous coronary intervention. The ranges for cost estimates varied widely across countries with US cost estimate being at least twice as high as European Union costs for some conditions. Few studies were found on populations outside the US and European Union.

CONCLUSION

This review showed wide variation in the cost of CV events within and across countries, while showcasing the continuing economic burden of CV disease. The variability in costs was primarily attributable to differences in study population, costing methodologies, and reporting differences. Reliable cost estimates for assessing economic value of interventions in CV disease are needed.

Time from symptom onset influences high-sensitivity troponin T diagnostic accuracy for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

The time required for patients with acute chest pain to reach a hospital emergency department varies, possibly lowering the diagnostic performance of a general cut-off value for high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T (hs-cTnT) in diagnosing acute myocardial infarction (AMI). The aim of this study was to determine the cut-off values as calculated by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) of hs-cTnT at different times from onset of symptoms to admission, and to evaluate their diagnostic performance.

METHODS

Our study included 3096 patients with symptoms suggestive of AMI. These patients were classified according to time from onset of symptoms to admission. The diagnostic accuracy was quantified by the area under the ROC curve (AUC).

RESULTS

Of the patients, 1082 (49.3%) were diagnosed as having AMI (317 were non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction [NSTEMI]). The AUC for hs-cTnT to diagnose AMI was 0.881 at <3 h after symptom onset, 0.940 at 3-6 h after symptom onset, 0.966 at 6-12 h after symptom onset, and 0.974 at >12 h after symptom onset. The threshold as determined by ROC of hs-cTnT was 13.5 ng/L to diagnose AMI at ≤3 h after symptom onset with a sensitivity of 81.8% and a specificity of 80.1%, 17.8 ng/L at 3-6 h after symptom onset with a sensitivity of 94.6% and a specificity of 84.3%, 30.0 ng/L at 6-12 h after symptom onset with a sensitivity of 95.9% and a specificity of 85.5%, and 58.0 ng/L at >12 h after symptom onset with a sensitivity of 92.7% and a specificity of 93.3%. The same observations were performed for the diagnosis of NSTEMI.

CONCLUSIONS

The ROC-determined cut-off value of hs-cTnT for AMI or NSTEMI diagnosis gradually increased with time from onset of symptoms to presentation. Using a higher cut-off value by ROC for hs-cTnT will improve its accuracy in diagnosing AMI or NSTEMI patients in late presenters. The higher value will enable physicians to more quickly rule in patients compared to the 99th percentile cut-off, and can rule out patients safely.

Impact of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin on use of coronary angiography, cardiac stress testing, and time to discharge in suspected acute myocardial infarction

Aims

High-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) assays provide higher diagnostic accuracy for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) when compared with conventional assays, but may result in increased use of unnecessary coronary angiographies due to their increased detection of cardiomyocyte injury in conditions other than AMI.

Methods and results

We evaluated the impact of the clinical introduction of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T (hs-cTnT) on the use of coronary angiography, stress testing, and time to discharge in 2544 patients presenting with symptoms suggestive of AMI to the emergency department (ED) within a multicentre study either before (1455 patients) or after (1089 patients) hs-cTnT introduction. Acute myocardial infarction was more often the clinical discharge diagnosis after hs-cTnT introduction (10 vs. 14%, P < 0.001), while unstable angina less often the clinical discharge diagnosis (14 vs. 9%, P = 0.007). The rate of coronary angiography was similar before and after the introduction of hs-cTnT (23 vs. 23%, P = 0.092), as was the percentage of coronary angiographies showing no stenosis (11 vs. 7%, P = 0.361). In contrast, the use of stress testing was substantially reduced from 29 to 19% (P < 0.001). In outpatients, median time to discharge from the ED decreased by 79 min (P < 0.001). Mean total costs decreased by 20% in outpatients after the introduction of hs-cTnT (P = 0.002).

Conclusion

The clinical introduction of hs-cTn does not lead to an increased or inappropriate use of coronary angiography. Introduction of hs-cTn is associated with an improved rule-out process and thereby reduces the need for stress testing and time to discharge.

Clinical Trial Registration Information

www.clinicaltrials.gov. Identifier, NCT00470587.

Costs of treating cardiovascular events in Germany: a systematic literature review

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to systematically evaluate available evidence regarding direct medical costs of treating cardiovascular (CV) events in Germany after 2003 on an individual patient basis and from a payer perspective. The CV events of interest were myocardial infarction (MI), unstable angina, heart failure (HF), stroke, and peripheral artery disease (PAD).

METHOD

A systematic literature search was performed in the following databases according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines - Medline, Embase, Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, TIBORDER, and German dissertation database from January 2003 to October 2013. Both observational studies and randomized clinical trials were considered for the review. All values stated in € are inflation adjusted to 2014 € unless stated otherwise.

RESULT

This review included 13 articles. For newly occurred MI patients, the average hospitalization costs during the acute phase were reported to be between € 6790 and € 8918 per admission. In the first year after a MI event, direct medical costs were € 13,838-14,792 per patient. Direct medical costs of chronic HF patients were found to be between € 3417 and 5576 per patient per year. Treatment costs increase with disease progression. The average treatment costs for hospitalized PAD in the acute phase were reported to be € 4963 per admission, € 2535 per patient during month 1-6 after the initial hospitalization, € 1601 in month 7-12, and € 1390 in month 13-18. For stroke of all types, total direct medical costs in the 1st year after an event were reported to be € 13,273 per patient. Total direct medical costs during the 1st year after an ischemic stroke event were € 17,399-21,954 per patient, € 6260 in month 13-18, and € 6496 per year in the subsequent 4 years.

CONCLUSION

MI, unstable angina, HF, stroke and PAD have a high financial impact on the German health care system. Treatment costs of these diseases are mostly incurred during the acute phase of events and tend to decrease over time. Hospitalization and rehabilitation costs were two major cost drivers. Medication costs was one of the smallest cost component reported.

Optimal Cutoff Levels of More Sensitive Cardiac Troponin Assays for the Early Diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction in Patients With Renal Dysfunction

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Background—

It is unknown whether more sensitive cardiac troponin (cTn) assays maintain their clinical utility in patients with renal dysfunction. Moreover, their optimal cutoff levels in this vulnerable patient population have not previously been defined.

Methods and Results—

In this multicenter study, we examined the clinical utility of 7 more sensitive cTn assays (3 sensitive and 4 high-sensitivity cTn assays) in patients presenting with symptoms suggestive of acute myocardial infarction. Among 2813 unselected patients, 447 (16%) had renal dysfunction (defined as Modification of Diet in Renal Disease–estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL·min⁻¹·1.73 m⁻²). The final diagnosis was centrally adjudicated by 2 independent cardiologists using all available information, including coronary angiography and serial levels of high-sensitivity cTnT. Acute myocardial infarction was the final diagnosis in 36% of all patients with renal dysfunction. Among patients with renal dysfunction and elevated baseline cTn levels (≥99th percentile), acute myocardial infarction was the most common diagnosis for all assays (range, 45%–80%). In patients with renal dysfunction, diagnostic accuracy at presentation, quantified by the area under the receiver-operator characteristic curve, was 0.87 to 0.89 with no significant differences between the 7 more sensitive cTn assays and further increased to 0.91 to 0.95 at 3 hours. Overall, the area under the receiver-operator characteristic curve in patients with renal dysfunction was only slightly lower than in patients with normal renal function. The optimal receiver-operator characteristic curve–derived cTn cutoff levels in patients with renal dysfunction were significantly higher compared with those in patients with normal renal function (factor, 1.9–3.4).

Conclusions—

More sensitive cTn assays maintain high diagnostic accuracy in patients with renal dysfunction. To ensure the best possible clinical use, assay-specific optimal cutoff levels, which are higher in patients with renal dysfunction, should be considered.

Clinical Trial Registration—

URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00470587.

High-sensitive troponin T assay for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction: an economic evaluation

Background

Delayed diagnosis and treatment of Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI) has a major adverse impact on prognosis in terms of both morbidity and mortality. Since conventional cardiac Troponin assays have a low sensitivity for diagnosing AMI in the first hours after myocardial necrosis, high-sensitive assays have been developed. The aim of this study was to assess the cost effectiveness of a high-sensitive Troponin T assay (hsTnT), alone or combined with the heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) assay in comparison with the conventional cardiac Troponin (cTnT) assay for the diagnosis of AMI in patients presenting to the hospital with chest pain.

Methods

We performed a cost-utility analysis (quality adjusted life years-QALYs) and a cost effectiveness analysis (life years gained-LYGs) based on a decision analytic model, using a health care perspective in the Dutch context and a life time time-horizon. The robustness of model predictions was explored using one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses.

Results

For a life time incremental cost of 30.70 Euros, use of hsTnT over conventional cTnT results in gain of 0.006 Life Years and 0.004 QALY. It should be noted here that hsTnT is a diagnostic intervention which costs only 4.39 Euros/test more than the cTnT test. The ICER generated with the use of hsTnT based diagnostic strategy comparing with the use of a cTnT-based strategy, is 4945 Euros per LYG and 7370 Euros per QALY. The hsTnT strategy has the highest probability of being cost effective at thresholds between 8000 and 20000 Euros per QALY. The combination of hsTnT and h-FABP strategy’s probability of being cost effective remains lower than hsTnT at all willingness to pay thresholds.

Conclusion

Our analysis suggests that hsTnT assay is a very cost effective diagnostic tool relative to conventional TnT assay. Combination of hsTnT and H-FABP does not offer any additional economic and health benefit over hsTnT test alone.

Determinants of inpatient costs of angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, and heart failure in a university hospital setting in Turkey

Objective:

This study aimed to determine the correlates of in-hospital costs for angina pectoris (AP), myocardial infarction (MI), and heart failure (HF) in a university hospital setting.

Methods:

This is a retrospective cost-of-illness study using data from the records of patients who were admitted with AP, MI, or HF to Dokuz Eylül University Hospital during 2008. Direct medical costs were calculated from the Social Security Institute perspective using a bottom-up approach. Socio-demographic and clinical information was abstracted from patient files. Costs were presented in Turkish lira (TL). A generalized linear model was used in the multivariate analysis.

Results:

We included 337 in-patients in total in the study. AP was present in 26.4% (n=89), MI was present in 55.8% (n=188), and HF was present in 17.8% (n=60) of patients. MI was the most costly disease (2760 TL), followed by HF (2350 TL) and AP (1881 TL). The largest proportion of the total cost was formed by medical interventions (27.5%), followed by surgery (22.2%). Presence of DM, smoking, diagnosis of MI, HF, need for intensive care, and resulting in death were strong predictors of treatment costs.

Conclusion:

Both preadmission characteristics of patients (diabetes mellitus, smoking, use of anti-aggregant before admission) and in-patient characteristics (diagnosis, coronary artery bypass grafting, intensive care need, death) predicted the hospital cost of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) independently. Our results may be used as input for health-economic models and economic evaluations to support the decision-making of reimbursement and the cost-effectiveness of public health interventions in healthcare.

Economic Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases in the Russian Federation

OBJECTIVES

In the Russian Federation, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the primary cause of death and premature death; however, to date, there have been no systematic cost-of-illness studies to assess the economic impact of CVD.

METHODS

The economic burden of CVD was estimated from statistic data on morbidity, mortality, and health care resource use. Health care costs were estimated on the basis of expenditure on primary, outpatient, emergency, and inpatient care, as well as medications. Non-health care costs included economic losses due to morbidity and premature death in the working age.

RESULTS

CVD was estimated to cost Russia RUR 836.1 billion (€24,517.8 million) in 2006 and RUR 1076 billion (€24,400.4 million) in 2009. Of the total costs of CVD, 14.5% in 2006 and 21.3% in 2009 were due to health care, with 85.5% and 78.7%, respectively, due to non-health care costs.

CONCLUSIONS

CVD is a leading public health problem. We first assessed the economic burden of CVD in Russia. Our results can be used for planning investments in prevention programs and measures for improving care for patients with CVD. Regular monitoring of the economic burden of CVD in the future at the federal, regional, and municipal levels will allow assessment of the dynamics of economic burden, as well as the effectiveness of investments in the economy in primary and secondary prevention. Because data are relatively unavailable, there are important limitations to this study, which highlight the need for more accurate CVD-specific information.

Treatment costs of acute myocardial infarction in the Netherlands

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to calculate the treatment costs of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in the Netherlands for 2012. Also, the degree of association between treatment costs of AMI and some patient and hospital characteristics was examined.

METHODS

For this retrospective cost analysis, patients were drawn from the database of the Diagnosis Treatment Combination (Diagnose Behandeling Combinatie, DBC) casemix system, which contains data on the resource use of all hospitalisations in the Netherlands. All costs were based on Euro 2012 cost data.

RESULTS

The analysis was based on data of 25,657 patients. Mean treatment costs were estimated at <euro> 5021, with significant cost increases for patients with percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) treatment. ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients receiving thrombolysis incurred the lowest (<euro> 4286), while non-STEMI patients receiving PCI the highest costs (<euro> 6060). Length of stay and hospital type were strong predictors of treatment costs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the most extensive cost assessment of the treatment costs of AMI in the Netherlands thus far. Our results may be used as input for health-economic models and economic evaluations to support the decision making of registration, reimbursement and pricing of interventions in healthcare.

What can we learn from international comparisons of costs by DRG?

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to compare costs data by diagnosis related group (DRG) between Belgium and Switzerland. Our hypotheses were that differences between countries can probably be explained by methodological differences in cost calculations, by differences in medical practices and by differences in cost structures within the two countries.

METHODS

Classifications of DRG used in the two countries differ (AP-DRGs version 1.7 in Switzerland and APR-DRGs version 15.0 in Belgium). The first step of this study was to transform Belgian summaries into Swiss AP-DRGs. Belgian and Swiss data were calculated with a clinical costing methodology (full costing). Belgian and Swiss costs were converted into US$ PPP (purchasing power parity) in order to neutralize differences in purchasing power between countries.

RESULTS

The results of this study showed higher costs in Switzerland despite standardization of cost data according to PPP. The difference is not explained by the case-mix index because this was similar for inliers between the two countries. The length of stay (LOS) was also quite similar for inliers between the two countries. The case-mix index was, however, higher for high outliers in Belgium, as reflected in a higher LOS for these patients. Higher costs in Switzerland are thus probably explained mainly by the higher number of agency staff by service in this country or because of differences in medical practices.

CONCLUSIONS

It is possible to make international comparisons but only if there is standardization of the case-mix between countries and only if comparable accountancy methodologies are used. Harmonization of DRGs groups, nomenclature and accountancy is thus required.

Uric acid for diagnosis and risk stratification in suspected myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Hypoxia precedes cardiomyocyte necrosis in acute myocardial infarction (AMI). We therefore hypothesized that uric acid - as a marker of oxidative stress and hypoxia - might be useful in the early diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with suspected AMI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this prospective observational study, uric acid was measured at presentation in 892 consecutive patients presenting to the emergency department with suspected AMI. The final diagnosis was adjudicated by two independent cardiologists. Patients were followed 24 months regarding mortality. Primary outcome was the diagnosis of AMI, secondary outcome was short- and long-term mortality.

RESULTS

Uric acid at presentation was higher in patients with AMI than in patients without (372 μM vs. 336 μM; P < 0·001). The diagnostic accuracy of uric acid for AMI as quantified by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0·60 (95%Cl 0·56-0·65). When added to cardiac troponin T (cTnT), uric acid significantly increased the AUC of cTnT from 0·89 (95%Cl 0·85-0·93) to 0·92 (95%Cl 0·89-0·95, P = 0·020 for comparison). Cumulative 24-month mortality rates were 2·2% in the first, 5·4% in the second and the third and 15·6% in the fourth quartile of uric acid (P < 0·001 for log-rank). Uric acid predicted 24-month mortality independently. Adding uric acid to TIMI and GRACE risk score improved their prognostic accuracy as shown by an integrated discrimination improvement of 0·04 (P = 0·007) respective 0·02 (P = 0·021).

CONCLUSIONS

Uric acid, an inexpensive widely available biomarker, improves both the early diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with suspected AMI.

Mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin in the early evaluation of acute chest pain patients

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin (MR-proADM) in the early diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with acute chest pain in comparison with established and novel biomarkers and risk scores.

METHODS

In this prospective, observational, international, multi-center trial (APACE), MR-proADM was determined in 1179 unselected patients with acute chest pain. Patients were followed for 24 months.

RESULTS

MR-proADM concentrations at presentation were higher in patients with AMI (median: 0.78 nmol/l, IQR 0.60-1.13) than in patients with other diagnoses (0.64 nmol/l, IQR 0.49-0.86 nmol/l; p<0.001). The diagnostic accuracy of MR-proADM for AMI as quantified by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.66. Adding MR-proADM to hs-cTnT could not improve its diagnostic accuracy for AMI (p=0.431). Seventy-six percent of all deaths occurred in the fourth quartile of MR-proADM (>0.90 nmol/l). Adding MR-proADM to the TIMI-score (AUC 0.87) predicted 1-year mortality more accurately than the TIMI-score alone (AUC 0.82; p<0.001). Net reclassification improvement (TIMI vs. additionally MR-proADM) amounted to 0.137 (p=0.012). MR-proADM had higher prognostic accuracy as compared to hs-cTnT in patients with AMI (p=0.015) and in those without AMI (p=0.003). MR-proADM at presentation was tantamount to GRACE score and BNP as to its prognostic accuracy for mortality. The AUC for the prediction of cardiovascular events amounted to 0.63.

CONCLUSIONS

While MR-proADM does not have clinical utility in the early diagnosis of AMI or predicting cardiovascular events in patients with acute chest pain, it may provide prognostic value for all-cause mortality.

Patient classification and hospital costs of care for acute myocardial infarction in nine European countries

This study contributes to the literature on the performance of diagnosis-related groups (DRGs) for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) patients by evaluating in nine countries the factors--in addition to DRGs--that affect costs or length of stay and comparing the variation that can be explained with or without DRGs. We evaluate whether the existing DRGs for AMI patients would benefit from additional patient-related and treatment-related factors that are found in administrative data across countries. In most countries, the set of patient and quality variables performed better than the DRG variables. Our results suggest that DRG systems in all countries could be improved by including additional explanatory factors or by refining the existing DRGs. Our results suggest that for AMI and possibly for other related episodes, a refinement of DRGs to include information on patient severity, procedures and levels of complications could improve the ability of DRGs to explain resource use. It seems possible to improve DRG-like hospital payment systems through the inclusion of episode-specific variables.

Transferability of National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommendations for pharmaceutical therapies in oncology to Central-Eastern European countries

The health burden of malignancies is greater in Central-Eastern Europe than in Western Europe. Furthermore, these countries have more limited healthcare resources, and therefore transparent decision criteria for innovative cancer therapies, including the assessment of cost-effectiveness, are an absolute necessity. Transferability of good-quality technology assessment reports, especially those prepared by National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the UK, could be highly beneficial to prevent duplication of efforts and save resources for local technology assessment. Our objective was to summarise key factors influencing the transferability of NICE recommendations in oncology for policy makers and oncologists in Central-Eastern Europe without personal experience in health technology assessment. In general, NICE recommendations are not transferable without adjustment of the analyses to local data. Even if the recommendation is positive, the conclusion can still be negative in lower-income countries, mainly due to relative price differences and the significance of the local budget impact. Technologies with negative NICE recommendations can still be cost-effective in Central-Eastern Europe due to the worse health status and therefore the greater potential health gain of the targeted population. The appropriateness of reimbursement decisions must be improved in Central-Eastern Europe, but copying NICE recommendations without local adjustment may do more harm than good.

N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide in the early evaluation of suspected acute myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Myocardial ischemia is a strong trigger of N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) release. As ischemia precedes necrosis in acute myocardial infarction, we hypothesized that NT-proBNP might be useful in the early diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction.

METHODS

In a prospective multicenter study, NT-proBNP was measured at presentation in 658 consecutive patients with acute chest pain. The final diagnosis was adjudicated by 2 independent cardiologists. Patients were followed long term regarding mortality.

RESULTS

Acute myocardial infarction was the adjudicated final diagnosis in 117 patients (18%). NT-proBNP levels at presentation were significantly higher in acute myocardial infarction as compared with patients with other final diagnoses (median 886 pg/mL vs 135 pg/mL, P <.001). The diagnostic accuracy of NT-proBNP for acute myocardial infarction as quantified by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.79 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.75-0.83). When added to cardiac troponin T, NT-proBNP significantly increased the AUC from 0.89 (95% CI, 0.84-0.93) to 0.91 (95% CI, 0.88-0.94; P=.033). Cumulative 24-month mortality rates were 0% in the first, 1.3% in the second, 8.3% in the third, and 23.3% in the fourth quartile of NT-proBNP (P <.001). NT-proBNP (AUC 0.85, 95% CI, 0.81-0.89) predicted all-cause mortality independently of and more accurately than both cardiac troponin T (AUC 0.66, 95% CI, 0.58-0.74; P <.001) and the Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction risk score (AUC 0.79, 95% CI, 0.74-0.84; P <.001). Net reclassification improvement (Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction vs additionally NT-proBNP) was 0.188 (P <.009), and integrated discrimination improvement was 0.100 (P <.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Use of NT-proBNP improves the early diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction.

The occurrence of acute myocardial infarction in Italy: a five-year analysis of hospital discharge records

BACKGROUND

The incidence and costs of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in Europe represent a substantial problem due to population aging.

METHODS

Between 2001 and 2005, Italian hospitalization records were examined to evaluate hospital admissions and costs of AMI in adults aged ≥ 45 and in elderly people ≥ 65 or ≥ 75. Hospital costs were calculated on the basis of Diagnosis Related Groups (DRGs).

RESULTS

75,586 men and 43,164 women were hospitalized because of AMI in 2005, showing respectively increases of 17.2% and 29.2% across five years. In the youngest age group (45-64), 29,925 hospitalizations in men and 6443 in women due to AMI were registered during 2005. In the subgroup of patients aged 65-74, 21,621 men and 10,145 women were hospitalized for AMI; in the oldest group (≥ 75) 24,040 and 26,576 hospitalizations were recorded. The increasing rates across the five examined years were 8.3% and 22.0% in the first age group, 14.3% and 17.4% in people aged 65-74, and 31.8% and 36.3% in the oldest subgroup, respectively in men and women. Among AMI patients aged ≥ 75, the number of women was always higher than that of men. Overall hospitalization costs due to AMI in Italy were 305 million Euros in 2001 and 370 million in 2005, with an average cost of 3115 Euros per patient in the latter year.

CONCLUSION

Our findings confirm AMI as a leading health problem and a leading cause of health care costs.

The impact of acute myocardial infarction and stroke on health care costs in patients with type 2 diabetes in Sweden

BACKGROUND

Estimates of the economic impact of cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes are scarce. The aim of this study was to determine the health care costs associated with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and stroke in patients with type 2 diabetes in Sweden.

DESIGN

Population-based open cohort study of 9941 patients with type 2 diabetes retrospectively identified in primary care records at 26 centres in Uppsala County.

METHODS

Episodes of AMI and stroke suffered by study patients were tracked in the Swedish National Inpatient Register. Annual per patient costs of health care were computed for the years 2000-2004 using register data covering inpatient care, outpatient hospital care, primary care and drugs. Panel data regression was applied to determine the impact of suffering a first or repeat AMI or stroke on health care costs during the year of the event and in subsequent years.

RESULTS

Total health care costs of patients suffering a first AMI/stroke increased by 4.1/6.5 during the year of the event [95% confidence interval (CI): 3.1-5.4/4.9-8.5] and by 1.1/1.4 during subsequent years (95% CI: 1.0-1.3/1.2-1.6), controlling for age, sex, the event of amputation and presence of renal failure, heart failure and diabetic eye disease. Total health care costs of patients suffering a first or repeat AMI/stroke increased by 4.1/6.4 during the year of an event (95% CI: 3.2-5.2/5.0-8.1) but were not significantly higher during subsequent years.

CONCLUSION

Estimates of the costs related to major cardiovascular complications of type 2 diabetes are critical input to economic evaluations.

Frequency and Outcome of Carotid Atheromatous Disease in Patients With Stroke in Pakistan

Background and Purpose— Limited data exist on the frequency and outcome of carotid artery disease in Pakistan. Such information would help guide the usefulness of screening for the condition in this low-middle income health care setting.

Methods— A prospective, descriptive study was conducted among 3 large teaching hospitals in Karachi, Pakistan. Patients referred for carotid Doppler ultrasound examination were included if they had experienced a stroke or TIA within the previous month. The severity and morphology of carotid disease were characterized by trained technicians using standardized criteria. Demographic and risk factor data were collected at baseline, and the outcome of patients was assessed at least 6 months later.

Results— A total of 672 patients underwent bilateral carotid Doppler ultrasound (1344 carotid examinations). The findings revealed 0% to 50% stenosis in 526 (78%), 51% to 69% stenosis in 57 (8%), 70% to 99% stenosis in 82 (12%), and total occlusion in 7 patients (1%). Potentially surgically correctable disease, defined as 70% to 99% carotid artery stenosis, was present in only 79 (12%) patients, of whom 47 (60%) were ipsilateral symptomatic, 15 (20%) asymptomatic, and 17 (20%) had status unknown. Outcome information at ≥6 months follow-up was available for 36 of the 47 (76%) surgically correctable and only 4 of these patients (12%) had undergone surgical or radiological intervention (carotid endarterectomy in 3 patients and carotid stenting in 1 patient).

Conclusion— The frequency of carotid artery disease of at least moderate severity is very low in patients with recent stroke or TIA and there is low utilization of high-cost, carotid intervention procedures in Pakistan. These data raise questions regarding the applicability and cost-effectiveness of routine carotid ultrasound screening in our country and similar population in Asia. The local socio-economic and clinical data do not support routine carotid Doppler ultrasound in every patient with stroke and TIA in Pakistan. Studies are warranted to determine predictors of significant carotid artery stenosis in stroke/TIA patients of our country to develop reliable stroke guidelines appropriate for local population.

Cross-country comparisons of costs: the use of episode-specific transitive purchasing power parities with standardised cost categories

International comparisons of healthcare costs are growing in importance for a number of different applications. The use of common approaches to converting costs such as GDP purchasing power parities (PPPs) often does not reflect price differences in healthcare in an appropriate manner. This means that new approaches need to be explored. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the feasibility of using episode-specific PPPs (ESPPPs) to facilitate cross-country comparisons of healthcare costs and to compare this approach with other common approaches to conversion. Costs for five care episodes from hospitals in eight European countries were obtained from the EU HealthBASKET project. ESPPPs were created by using Fisher-type PPPs in combination with the Eltetö-Köves-Szulc method at the episode level. Differences in ESPPPs among the five care episodes were discussed and compared with other common conversion approaches. We found that ESPPPs-reflected prices and resource use more accurately than conventional conversion approaches such as GDP PPPs and medical care PPPs. This was particularly evident for labour-intensive care episodes in which other conversion approaches revealed problems in the way that labour input had not been considered appropriately. The results demonstrate that ESPPPs are preferable to other common conversion approaches when international healthcare cost comparisons are performed.