IP(3) mobilization and diffusion determine the timing window of Ca(2+) release by synaptic stimulation and a spike in rat CA1 pyramidal cells

Hindered cytoplasmic diffusion of inositol trisphosphate restricts its cellular range of action

The range of action of intracellular messengers is determined by their rates of diffusion and degradation. Previous measurements in oocyte cytoplasmic extracts indicated that the Ca²⁺-liberating second messenger inositol trisphosphate (IP₃) diffuses with a coefficient (~280 μm² s^-1) similar to that in water, corresponding to a range of action of ~25 μm. Consequently, IP₃ is generally considered a "global" cellular messenger. We reexamined this issue by measuring local IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ puffs to monitor IP₃ diffusing from spot photorelease in neuroblastoma cells. Fitting these data by numerical simulations yielded a diffusion coefficient (≤10 μm² s^-1) about 30-fold slower than that previously reported. We propose that diffusion of IP₃ in mammalian cells is hindered by binding to immobile, functionally inactive receptors that were diluted in oocyte extracts. The predicted range of action of IP₃ (<5 μm) is thus smaller than the size of typical mammalian cells, indicating that IP₃ should better be considered as a local rather than a global cellular messenger.

Ca2+ sparks and puffs are generated and interact in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neuron dendrites

1,4,5-Inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) and ryanodine receptors (RyRs) mediate release of Ca(2+) from internal stores in many neurons. The details of the spatial and temporal characteristics of these signals and their interactions in dendrites remain to be clarified. We found that localized Ca(2+) release events, with no associated change in membrane potential, occurred spontaneously in the dendrites of rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Their rate, but not their amplitude or time course, could be modulated by changes in membrane potential. Together, these results suggest that the spontaneous events are similar to RyR-dependent Ca(2+) "sparks" found in cardiac myocytes. In addition, we found that we could generate another kind of localized Ca(2+) release event by either a synaptic tetanus in the presence of 3-((R)-2-carboxypiperazine-4-yl)-propyl-1-phosphonic acid and CNQX or by uncaging IP3. These events had slower rise times and decay times than sparks and were more heterogeneous. These properties are similar to Ca(2+) "puffs" found in oocytes. These two localized signals interact. Low-intensity tetanic synaptic stimulation or uncaging of IP3 increased the decay time of spontaneous Ca(2+) events without changing their rise time or amplitude. Pharmacological experiments suggest that this event widening is attributable to a delayed IP3R-mediated release of Ca(2+) triggered by the synergistic action of IP3 and Ca(2+) released by RyRs. The actions of IP3 appear to be confined to the main apical dendrite because uncaging IP3 in the oblique dendrites has no effect on the time course of localized events or backpropagating action potential-evoked Ca(2+) signals in this region.

Developmental profile of localized spontaneous Ca(2+) release events in the dendrites of rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons

Recent experiments demonstrate that localized spontaneous Ca(2+) release events can be detected in the dendrites of pyramidal cells in the hippocampus and other neurons (J. Neurosci. 29 (2009) 7833-7845). These events have some properties that resemble ryanodine receptor mediated "sparks" in myocytes, and some that resemble IP(3) receptor mediated "puffs" in oocytes. They can be detected in the dendrites of rats of all tested ages between P3 and P80 (with sparser sampling in older rats), suggesting that they serve a general signaling function and are not just important in development. However, in younger rats the amplitudes of the events are larger than the amplitudes in older animals and almost as large as the amplitudes of Ca(2+) signals from backpropagating action potentials (bAPs). The rise time of the event signal is fast at all ages and is comparable to the rise time of the bAP fluorescence signal at the same dendritic location. The decay time is slower in younger animals, primarily because of weaker Ca(2+) extrusion mechanisms at that age. Diffusion away from a brief localized source is the major determinant of decay at all ages. A simple computational model closely simulates these events with extrusion rate the only age dependent variable.

Understanding calcium waves and sparks in central neurons

All cells use changes in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) to regulate cell signalling events. In neurons, with their elaborate dendritic and axonal arborizations, there are clear examples of both localized and widespread Ca(2+) signals. [Ca(2+)](i) changes that are generated by Ca(2+) entry through voltage- and ligand-gated channels are the best characterized. In addition, the release of Ca(2+) from intracellular stores can result in increased [Ca(2+)](i); the signals that trigger this release have been less well-studied, in part because they are not usually associated with specific changes in membrane potential. However, recent experiments have revealed dramatic widespread Ca(2+) waves and localized spark-like events, particularly in dendrites. Here we review emerging data on the nature of these signals and their functions.

Synaptically activated Ca2+ waves and NMDA spikes locally suppress voltage-dependent Ca2+ signalling in rat pyramidal cell dendrites

Postsynaptic [Ca(2+)](i) changes contribute to several kinds of plasticity in pyramidal neurons. We examined the effects of synaptically activated Ca(2+) waves and NMDA spikes on subsequent Ca(2+) signalling in CA1 pyramidal cell dendrites in hippocampal slices. Tetanic synaptic stimulation evoked a localized Ca(2+) wave in the primary apical dendrites. The [Ca(2+)](i) increase from a backpropagating action potential (bAP) or subthreshold depolarization was reduced if it was generated immediately after the wave. The suppression had a recovery time of 30-60 s. The suppression only occurred where the wave was generated and was not due to a change in bAP amplitude or shape. The suppression also could be generated by Ca(2+) waves evoked by uncaging IP(3), showing that other signalling pathways activated by the synaptic tetanus were not required. The suppression was proportional to the amplitude of the [Ca(2+)](i) change of the Ca(2+) wave and was not blocked by a spectrum of kinase or phosphatase inhibitors, consistent with suppression due to Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation of Ca(2+) channels. The waves also reduced the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous, localized Ca(2+) release events in the dendrites by a different mechanism, probably by depleting the stores at the site of wave generation. The same synaptic tetanus often evoked NMDA spike-mediated [Ca(2+)](i) increases in the oblique dendrites where Ca(2+) waves do not propagate. These NMDA spikes suppressed the [Ca(2+)](i) increase caused by bAPs in those regions. [Ca(2+)](i) increases by Ca(2+) entry through voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels also suppressed the [Ca(2+)](i) increases from subsequent bAPs in regions where the voltage-gated [Ca(2+)](i) increases were largest, showing that all ways of raising [Ca(2+)](i) could cause suppression.

Inositol trisphosphate 3-kinases: focus on immune and neuronal signaling

The localized control of second messenger levels sculpts dynamic and persistent changes in cell physiology and structure. Inositol trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)] 3-kinases (ITPKs) phosphorylate the intracellular second messenger Ins(1,4,5)P(3). These enzymes terminate the signal to release Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum and produce the messenger inositol tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)]. Independent of their enzymatic activity, ITPKs regulate the microstructure of the actin cytoskeleton. The immune phenotypes of ITPK knockout mice raise new questions about how ITPKs control inositol phosphate lifetimes within spatial and temporal domains during lymphocyte maturation. The intense concentration of ITPK on actin inside the dendritic spines of pyramidal neurons suggests a role in signal integration and structural plasticity in the dendrite, and mice lacking neuronal ITPK exhibit memory deficits. Thus, the molecular and anatomical features of ITPKs allow them to regulate the spatiotemporal properties of intracellular signals, leading to the formation of persistent molecular memories.