Intracellular targeting therapy of cisplatin-encapsulated transferrin-polyethylene glycol liposome on peritoneal dissemination of gastric cancer

Platinum-based chemotherapy: trends in organic nanodelivery systems

Despite the investment in platinum drugs research, cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin are still the only Pt-based compounds used as first line treatments for several cancers, with a few other compounds being approved for administration in some Asian countries. However, due to the severe and worldwide impact of oncological diseases, there is an urge for improved chemotherapeutic approaches. Furthermore, the pharmaceutical application of platinum complexes is hindered by their inherent toxicity and acquired resistance. Nanodelivery systems rose as a key strategy to overcome these challenges, with recognized versatility and ability towards improving the safety, bioavailability and efficacy of the available drugs. Among the known nanocarriers, organic systems have been widely applied, taking advantage of their potential as drug vehicles. Researchers have mainly focused on the development of lipidic and polymeric carriers, including supramolecular structures, with an overall improvement of encapsulated platinum complexes. Herein, an overview of recent trends and strategies is presented, with the main focus on the encapsulation of platinum compounds into organic nanocarriers, showcasing the evolution in the design and development of these promising systems. This comprehensive review highlights formulation methods as well as characterization procedures, providing insights that may be helpful for the development of novel platinum nanocarriers aiming at future pharmaceutical applications.

Advances in targeted therapy for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive in advanced gastric cancer

Emerging therapeutic methods represented by targeted therapy are effective supplements to traditional first-line chemoradiotherapy resistance. Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is one of the most important targets in targeted therapy for gastric cancer. Trastuzumab combined with chemotherapy has been used as the first-line treatment for advanced gastric cancer. The safety and efficacy of pertuzumab and margetuximab in the treatment of gastric cancer have been verified. However, monoclonal antibodies, due to their large molecular weight, inability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier, and drug resistance, lead to decreased therapeutic efficacy, so it is necessary to explore the efficacy of other HER2-targeting therapies in gastric cancer. Small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as lapatinib and pyrrotinib, have the advantages of small molecular weight, penetrating the blood-brain barrier and high oral bioavailability, and are expected to become the drugs of choice for perioperative treatment and neoadjuvant therapy of gastric cancer after validation by large-scale clinical trials in the future. Antibo-drug conjugate, such as T-DM1 and T-DXd, can overcome the resistance of monoclonal antibodies despite their different mechanisms of tumor killing, and are a supplement for the treatment of patients who have failed the treatment of monoclonal antibodies such as trastuzumab. Therefore, after more detailed stratification of gastric cancer patients, various gastric cancer drugs targeting HER2 are expected to play a more significant role.

Recent advances in liposome-based targeted cancer therapy

Nano-drug delivery systems have opened new pathways for tumor treatment by overcoming some of the limitations of conventional drugs, such as physiological degradation, short half-life, and rapid release. Liposomes are promising nanocarrier systems due to their biocompatibility, low toxicity, and high inclusivity, as well as their enhanced drug bioavailability. Various strategies for active targeting of liposomal formulations have been investigated to achieve the highest drug efficacy. This review aims to summarize current developments in novel liposomal formulations, particularly ligand-targeted liposomes (such as folate, transferrin, hyaluronic acid, antibodies, aptamer, and peptide, etc.) used for the therapy of various cancers and provide an insight on the challenges and future of liposomes for scientists and pharmaceutical companies.

A nanoformulation of cisplatin with arabinoxylan having enhanced activity against hepatocellular carcinoma through upregulation of apoptotic and necroptotic pathways

Cisplatin is a versatile drug used to treat various types of cancer, but it is associated with high toxicity and resistance problems. Several approaches, including nanotechnology, have been adopted to minimize the toxic effects and to overcome the resistance of cisplatin. Most of the nanoformulations involve the use of synthetic or semisynthetic polymers as drug carriers. In this study arabinoxylan nanoparticles have been investigated as drug reservoirs for intestinal drug delivery. The drug-loaded arabinoxylan nanoparticles (size: ∼1.8 nm, polydispersity index: 0.3 ± 0.04) were prepared and nanoformulation was characterized by various analytical techniques. The nanoformulation was found to be stable (zeta potential: 31.6 ± 1.1 mV). An in vitro cytotoxicity against HepG2 and HEK 293 cell lines was studied. The cell viability analysis showed greater efficacy than the standard cisplatin (IC50: cisplatin 2.4, arabinoxylan nanoformulation 1.3 μg mL-1). The expression profile of carcinogenic markers revealed a six-fold upregulation of MLKL and 0.9-fold down regulation of KRAS, suggesting the activation of the necroptotic pathway by the drug-loaded nanoparticles. The nanoformulation exhibited a sustained release of cisplatin with a cumulative release of ∼40 % (at pH 7.4) and ∼30 % (at pH 5.5) over a period of 12 h with very low initial burst. The study suggests that the use of the new nanoformulation can significantly reduce the required dose of cisplatin without compromising efficacy and more efficient release at basic pH.

Pathophysiological aspects of transferrin-A potential nano-based drug delivery signaling molecule in therapeutic target for varied diseases

Transferrin (Tf), widely known for its role as an iron-binding protein, exemplifies multitasking in biological processes. The role of Tf in iron metabolism involves both the uptake of iron from Tf by various cells, as well as the endocytosis mediated by the complex of Tf and the transferrin receptor (TfR). The direct conjugation of the therapeutic compound and immunotoxin studies using Tf peptide or anti-Tf receptor antibodies as targeting moieties aims to prolong drug circulation time and augment efficient cellular drug uptake, diminish systemic toxicity, traverse the blood-brain barrier, restrict systemic exposure, overcome multidrug resistance, and enhance therapeutic efficacy with disease specificity. This review primarily discusses the various biological actions of Tf, as well as the development of Tf-targeted nano-based drug delivery systems. The goal is to establish the use of Tf as a disease-targeting component, accentuating the potential therapeutic applications of this protein.

A state-of-art of underlying molecular mechanisms and pharmacological interventions/nanotherapeutics for cisplatin resistance in gastric cancer

The fourth common reason of death among patients is gastric cancer (GC) and it is a dominant tumor type in Ease Asia. One of the problems in GC therapy is chemoresistance. Cisplatin (CP) is a platinum compound that causes DNA damage in reducing tumor progression and viability of cancer cells. However, due to hyperactivation of drug efflux pumps, dysregulation of genes and interactions in tumor microenvironment, tumor cells can develop resistance to CP chemotherapy. The current review focuses on the CP resistance emergence in GC cells with emphasizing on molecular pathways, pharmacological compounds for reversing chemoresistance and the role of nanostructures. Changes in cell death mechanisms such as upregulation of pro-survival autophagy can prevent CP-mediated apoptosis that results in drug resistance. Moreover, increase in metastasis via EMT induction induces CP resistance. Dysregulation of molecular pathways such as PTEN, PI3K/Akt, Nrf2 and others result in changes in CP response of GC cells. Non-coding RNAs determine CP response of GC cells and application of pharmacological compounds with activity distinct of CP can result in sensitivity in tumor cells. Due to efficacy of exosomes in transferring bioactive molecules such as RNA and DNA molecules among GC cells, exosomes can also result in CP resistance. One of the newest progresses in overcoming CP resistance in GC is application of nanoplatforms for delivery of CP in GC therapy that they can increase accumulation of CP at tumor site and by suppressing carcinogenic factors and overcoming biological barriers, they increase CP toxicity on cancer cells.

Engineered nanomaterials enhance drug delivery strategies for the treatment of osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common malignant bone tumor in adolescents, and the clinical treatment of OS mainly includes surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. However, the side effects of chemotherapy drugs are an issue that clinicians cannot ignore. Nanomedicine and drug delivery technologies play an important role in modern medicine. The development of nanomedicine has ushered in a new turning point in tumor treatment. With the emergence and development of nanoparticles, nanoparticle energy surfaces can be designed with different targeting effects. Not only that, nanoparticles have unique advantages in drug delivery. Nanoparticle delivery drugs can not only reduce the toxic side effects of chemotherapy drugs, but due to the enhanced permeability retention (EPR) properties of tumor cells, nanoparticles can survive longer in the tumor microenvironment and continuously release carriers to tumor cells. Preclinical studies have confirmed that nanoparticles can effectively delay tumor growth and improve the survival rate of OS patients. In this manuscript, we present the role of nanoparticles with different functions in the treatment of OS and look forward to the future treatment of improved nanoparticles in OS.

Platinum-Based Nanoformulations for Glioblastoma Treatment: The Resurgence of Platinum Drugs?

Current therapies for treating Glioblastoma (GB), and brain tumours in general, are inefficient and represent numerous challenges. In addition to surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy are presently used as standards of care. However, treated patients still face a dismal prognosis with a median survival below 15-18 months. Temozolomide (TMZ) is the main chemotherapeutic agent administered; however, intrinsic or acquired resistance to TMZ contributes to the limited efficacy of this drug. To circumvent the current drawbacks in GB treatment, a large number of classical and non-classical platinum complexes have been prepared and tested for anticancer activity, especially platinum (IV)-based prodrugs. Platinum complexes, used as alkylating agents in the anticancer chemotherapy of some malignancies, are though often associated with severe systemic toxicity (i.e., neurotoxicity), especially after long-term treatments. The objective of the current developments is to produce novel nanoformulations with improved lipophilicity and passive diffusion, promoting intracellular accumulation, while reducing toxicity and optimizing the concomitant treatment of chemo-/radiotherapy. Moreover, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents the access of the drugs to the brain and accumulation in tumour cells, so it represents a key challenge for GB management. The development of novel nanomedicines with the ability to (i) encapsulate Pt-based drugs and pro-drugs, (ii) cross the BBB, and (iii) specifically target cancer cells represents a promising approach to increase the therapeutic effect of the anticancer drugs and reduce undesired side effects. In this review, a critical discussion is presented concerning different families of nanoparticles able to encapsulate platinum anticancer drugs and their application for GB treatment, emphasizing their potential for increasing the effectiveness of platinum-based drugs.

Synthesis, characterisation and multi-modal intracellular mapping of cisplatin nano-conjugates

The synthesis of nanocarriers for the delivery of the antitumor drug cisplatin is reported. Multimodal-imaging consisting of surface enhanced Raman scattering and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma time of flight mass spectrometry was used to visualise the intracellular uptake of both the nanocarrier and drug.

Liposomes for Tumor Targeted Therapy: A Review

Liposomes, the most widely studied nano-drug carriers in drug delivery, are sphere-shaped vesicles consisting of one or more phospholipid bilayers. Compared with traditional drug delivery systems, liposomes exhibit prominent properties that include targeted delivery, high biocompatibility, biodegradability, easy functionalization, low toxicity, improvements in the sustained release of the drug it carries and improved therapeutic indices. In the wake of the rapid development of nanotechnology, the studies of liposome composition have become increasingly extensive. The molecular diversity of liposome composition, which includes long-circulating PEGylated liposomes, ligand-functionalized liposomes, stimuli-responsive liposomes, and advanced cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanocarriers, endows their drug delivery with unique physiological functions. This review describes the composition, types and preparation methods of liposomes, and discusses their targeting strategies in cancer therapy.

Bone-Targeted Dual Functional Lipid-coated Drug Delivery System for Osteosarcoma Therapy

PURPOSE OR OBJECTIVE

Osteosarcoma is well-known for its high incidence in children and adolescents and long-term bone pain, which seriously reduces the life quality of patients. Cisplatin (CDDP), as the first-line anti-osteosarcoma drug, has been used in many anticancer treatments. At the same time, the serious side effects of platinum (Pt) drugs have also attracted widespread attention. To accurately deliver Pt drugs to the lesion site and realize controlled release of Pt drugs, certain modified delivery systems have been extensively studied.

METHODS

Among them, liposomes have been approved for clinical cancer treatment due to their highly biocompatibility and superior modifiability. Here, we developed a bone-targeted dual functional lipid-coated drug delivery system, lipid-coated CDDP alendronate nanoparticles (LCA NPs) to target the bone and precisely deliver the drugs to the tumor site. Cell toxicity, apoptosis and cellular uptake were detected to evaluate the anticancer effect for LCA NPs. Furthermore, transwell assay and wound healing assay were conducted to estimate the osteosarcoma cell migration and invasion. Hemolysis assay was utilized to assess the biocapitibility of the kind of NPs.

RESULTS

With the aim of bone-targeted unit alendronate (ALD), LCA NPs serve as a rich bone homing Pt delivery system to exert efficient anticancer effects and synergistically reduce bone resorption and bone loss potentially.

CONCLUSIONS

By providing a highly biocompatible platform for osteosarcoma therapy, LCA NPs may help to significantly enhance the anticancer effect of Pt and greatly reduce the systemic toxicity and side effects of Pt towards osteosarcoma.

Intraperitoneal drug delivery systems releasing cytostatic agents to target gastro-intestinal peritoneal metastases in laboratory animals: a systematic review

For peritoneal metastases (PM), there are few curative treatment options, and they are only available for a select patient group. Recently, new therapies have been developed to deliver intraperitoneal chemotherapy for a prolonged period, suitable for a larger patient group. These drug delivery systems (DDSs) seem promising in the experimental setting. Many types of DDSs have been explored in a variety of animal models, using different cytostatics. This review aimed to provide an overview of animal studies using DDSs containing cytostatics for the treatment of gastro-intestinal PM and identify the most promising therapeutic combinations. The review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and Systematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation (SYRCLE) guidelines. The 35 studies included revealed similar results: using a cytostatic-loaded DDS to treat PM resulted in a higher median survival time (MST) and a lower intraperitoneal tumor load compared to no treatment or treatment with a ‘free’ cytostatic or an unloaded DDS. In 65% of the studies, the MST was significantly longer and in 24% the tumor load was significantly lower in the animals treated with cytostatic-loaded DDS. The large variety of experimental setups made it impossible to identify the most promising DDS-cytostatic combination. In most studies, the risk of bias was unclear due to poor reporting. Future studies should focus more on improving the clinical relevance of the experiments, standardizing the experimental study setup, and improving their methodological quality and reporting.

Amino acid coordination complex mediates cisplatin entrapment within PEGylated liposome: An implication in colorectal cancer therapy

Cis-Diaminedichloroplatinum (cisplatin, CDDP) remained among the most widely used anti-cancer agents; however, management of the dose-limiting side effects is still a great hurdle to its therapeutic potential. In the framework of this investigation, novel approach was developed for CDDP encasement within liposome based on the formation of a coordination bond between the platinum (II) atom and a carboxylic group in aspartic acid (AA) and glutamic acid (GA). We have also compared two methods of preparation based on equilibration and conventional lipid film hydration. For this, first FTIR spectra of the conjugates confirmed coordination bond between Pt and the carboxylate moieties. The PEGylated liposomes composed of HSPC, cholesterol and DPPG had a size of 134 to 197 nm and negative zeta potential (-14.20 to -20.90 mv). Cytotoxicity study revealed IC₅₀ values of <7 µg/ml for liposomes. In vivo plasma retention following iv administration indicated the potential of liposome in maintaining cisplatin levels within the circulation, while free cisplatin and cisplatin conjugates were promptly eliminated. Anti-tumor efficacy studies following iv injections at 3 mg/kg cisplatin weekly for three weeks in C26 tumor bearing BALB/c mice demonstrated the potential of the cisplatin liposomes in tumor growth inhibition. Pt-complexes were not as effective as liposomal formulations showing the crucial role of liposomes in maintaining cisplatin levels within blood circulation. Overall, the developed cisplatin liposome seems to be a promising therapeutic approach for targeting solid tumors.

An Optimized Two-Herb Chinese Food as Medicine Formula Reduces Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity in the Treatment of Lung Cancer in Mice

Chemotherapy is considered a most effective way to treat cancer. However, it is very common that chemotherapy causes unbearable mental and physical side effects to cancer patients, which ultimately reduces the patients’ confidence of overcoming diseases and compromises the treatment of chemotherapy. Cisplatin (DDP), a widely used anticancer agent for various types of cancers, also damages nontumor cells and tissues, which are mostly related to the activation of the inflammation pathway. Previously, we have discovered a few rational formulas of food as medicine materials that reduced systemic inflammation in in vitro and in vivo models. Hence, this study reports the ability of an optimized traditional Chinese anti-inflammatory formulation capable of synergizing the antitumor effect of DDP in vitro and in vivo. More significantly, by formulation of two anti-inflammatory herbal medicine, the Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl [Asteraceae] and Lonicera japonica Thunb [Caprifoliaceae] with a mediator Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC [Fabaceae], a best formula relieved the kidney damage imposed by DDP. Treatments of various combinations of major chemical components of the three herbs also exhibited a similar trend for lowering the DDP-induced nephrotoxicity; however, contrary to that of the formula of herbal extracts, all chemical formulas could not recover the body weight and food intake of the tumor-bearing mice treated by DDP. Our findings suggested that the therapeutic index of DDP-based chemotherapy was able to be improved by minimizing toxicities from the two-herb formula to inhibit the inflammation in mouse tumor models and DDP-induced acute kidney injury mouse models.

Applications of Extracellular Vesicles in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and refractory subtype of breast cancer, often occurring in younger patients with poor clinical prognosis. Given the current lack of specific targets for effective intervention, the development of better treatment strategies remains an unmet medical need. Over the last decade, the field of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has grown tremendously, offering immense potential for clinical diagnosis/prognosis and therapeutic applications. While TNBC-EVs have been shown to play an important role in tumorigenesis, chemoresistance and metastasis, they could be repurposed as potential biomarkers for TNBC diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, EVs from various cell types can be utilized as nanoscale drug delivery systems (NDDS) for TNBC treatment. Remarkably, EVs generated from specific immune cell subsets have been shown to delay solid tumour growth and reduce tumour burden, suggesting a new immunotherapy approach for TNBC. Intrinsically, EVs can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which holds great potential to treat the brain metastases diagnosed in one third of TNBC patients that remains a substantial clinical challenge. In this review, we present the most recent applications of EVs in TNBC as diagnostic/prognostic biomarkers, nanoscale drug delivery systems and immunotherapeutic agents, as well as discuss the associated challenges and future directions of EVs in cancer immunotherapy.

Nanotechnology-based strategies for gastric cancer imaging and treatment

Gastric cancer is the second biggest cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Despite the improvement in deciphering molecular mechanisms, advances of detection and imaging, implementation of prevention programs, and personalized treatment, the overall curative rate remains low. In particular, with the emergence of nanomaterials, different imaging modalities can be integrated into one single platform, and combined therapies with synergetic effects against gastric cancer were established. Moreover, the development of theranostic strategies with simultaneous diagnostic and therapeutic ability was boosted by multifunctional nanoparticles. Herein, we present a comprehensive review of major nanotechnology-based breakthroughs for gastric cancer imaging and treatment. We will describe the superiority of nanomaterials used in gastric cancer and summarize nanotechnology applications for the improvement of cancer imaging and therapeutic efficacy.

A novel formulation of theranostic nanomedicine for targeting drug delivery to gastrointestinal tract cancer

Background

Theranostic nanomedicines contain a nanovehicle that has fluorescent properties and can be used for diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic purposes. The transferrin receptor expression is 1000-fold higher in rapidly growing cancer cells as compared to the normal cells and, therefore, can be used in targeted drug delivery systems. The objective of the present study was to design a novel targeted gold nanoparticle (GNPs)-based theranostic formulation for gastrointestinal (GI) tract-related cancers. The synthesized GNPs were conjugated to transferrin and doxorubicin both separately and collectively to check their cytotoxic properties. The in vitro cytotoxicity of nanocomposites was observed against colon cancer cell line HCT-116. The doxorubicin conjugated nanocomposites showed almost the same cytotoxicity, but more effect at later hours (h). The IC50 and IC100 were 50 µg/ml and 250 µg/ml, respectively, equivalent to the doxorubicin weight for GNP theranostic nanomedicine.

Results

The maximum effect was observed after 12 h and nanomedicines were still active after 72 h of treatment. Our in vivo data proved that nanomedicine crossed all the barriers and was successfully delivered to the tumour cells. Theranostic nanomedicine’s (TNM) effect on body weight and survival rate on mice was many folds better than mice in pure doxorubicin group. It also showed almost 80% survival rate on day 40. The in vivo and in vitro results show the effects of prolonged drug release and the nanomedicine was not toxic to vital organs of the animal.

Conclusion

This is one of its kind studies in which a novel targeted nanomedicines approach was formulated for therapeutic as well as prognostic purposes against GI tract cancer.

Graphic Abstract

A brief review of the essential role of nanovehicles for improving the therapeutic efficacy of pharmacological agents against tumours

Cancer is the leading cause of death globally. There are several differences between cancer cells and normal cells. From all the therapies, chemotherapy is the most prominent therapy to treat cancer. However, the conventional drug delivery that is used to deliver poorly aqueous soluble chemotherapeutic agents has several obstacles such as whole-body distribution, rapid excretion, degradation before reaching the infected site, side effects, etc. Nanoformulation of these aqueous insoluble agents is the emerging delivery system for targeted and increasing solubility. Among all the three methods (physical, chemical and biological) chemical and biological methods are mostly used for the synthesis of nanovehicles (NVs) of different sizes, shapes and dimensions. A passive targeting delivery system in which NVs supports the pharmacological agents (drugs/genes) is a good way for resolving the obstacles with a conventional delivery system. It enhances the therapeutic efficacy of pharmacological agents (drugs/genes). These NVs have several specific characters like small size, large surface area to volume ratio, surface functionalization, etc. However, this delivery is not able to deliver site-specific delivery of drugs. An active targeting delivery system in which pharmacological agents are loaded on NVs to attack directly on cancer cells and tissues is a superior way for delivering the pharmacological agents compared to a passive targeting delivery system. Various targeting ligands have been investigated and applied for targeting the delivery of drugs such as sugar, vitamin, antibodies, protein, peptides, etc. These targeted ligand supports to guide the NVs accumulated directly on the cancer cells with a higher level of cellular internalization compared to passive targeting and conventional delivery system.

Nanotechnology Assisted Chemotherapy for Targeted Cancer Treatment: Recent Advances and Clinical Perspectives

Nanotechnology has recently provided exciting platforms in the field of anticancer research with promising potentials for improving drug delivery efficacy and treatment outcomes. Nanoparticles (NPs) possess different advantages over the micro and bulk therapeutic agents, including their capability to carry high payloads of drugs, with prolonged half-life, reduced toxicity of the drugs, and increased targeting efficiency. The wide variety of nanovectors, coupled with different conjugation and encapsulation methods available for different theranostic agents provide promising opportunities to fine-tune the pharmacological properties of these agents for more effective cancer treatment methods. This review discusses applications of NPs-assisted chemotherapy in preclinical and clinical settings and recent advances in design and synthesis of different nanocarriers for chemotherapeutic agents. Moreover, physicochemical properties of different nanocarriers, their impacts on different tumor targeting strategies and effective parameters for efficient targeted drug delivery are discussed. Finally, the current approved NPs-assisted chemotherapeutic agents for clinical applications and under different phases of clinical trials are discussed.

Beyond DNA-targeting in Cancer Chemotherapy. Emerging Frontiers - A Review

Modern anti-cancer drugs target DNA specifically for rapid division of malignant cells. One downside of this approach is that they also target other rapidly dividing healthy cells, such as those involved in hair growth leading to serious toxic side effects and hair loss. Therefore, it would be better to develop novel agents that address cellular signaling mechanisms unique to cancerous cells, and new research is now focussing on such approaches. Although the classical chemotherapy area involving DNA as the set target continues to produce important findings, nevertheless, a distinctly discernible emerging trend is the divergence from the cisplatin operation model that uses the metal as the primary active center of the drug. Many successful anti-cancer drugs present are associated with elevated toxicity levels. Cancers also develop immunity against most therapies and the area of cancer research can, therefore, be seen as an area with a high unaddressed need. Hence, ongoing work into cancer pathogenesis is important to create accurate preclinical tests that can contribute to the development of innovative drugs to manage and treat cancer. Some of the emergent frontiers utilizing different approaches include nanoparticles delivery, use of quantum dots, metal complexes, tumor ablation, magnetic hypothermia and hyperthermia by use of Superparamagnetic Iron oxide Nanostructures, pathomics and radiomics, laser surgery and exosomes. This review summarizes these new approaches in good detail, giving critical views with necessary comparisons. It also delves into what they carry for the future, including their advantages and disadvantages.

Pharmaceutical strategies in improving anti-tumour efficacy and safety of intraperitoneal therapy for peritoneal metastasis

Introduction: In selected patients with limited peritoneal metastasis (PM), favorable tumor biology, and a good clinical condition, there is an indication for combination of cytoreductive surgery (CRS) and subsequent intravenous (IV) or intraperitoneal (IP) chemotherapy. Compared with IV injection, IP therapy can achieve a high drug concentration within the peritoneal cavity with low systemic toxicity, however, the clinical application of IP chemotherapy is limited by the related abdominal pain, infection, and intolerance.Areas covered:To improve the anti-tumor efficacy and safety of IP therapy, various pharmaceutical strategies have been developed and show promising potential. This review discusses the specialized modification of traditional drug delivery systems and demonstrates the preparation of customized drug carriers for IP therapy, including chemotherapy and gene therapy. IP therapy has important clinical significance in the treatment of PM using novel anti-tumor agents as well as conventional drugs in new applications.Expert opinion: Although IP therapy exhibits good performance both in mouse models and in patients with PM in clinical trials, its clinical application remains limited due to the serious side effects and low acceptability. Further investigations, including pharmaceutical strategies, are needed to develop potential IP therapy, focusing on the efficacy and safety thereof.

In Vitro and In Vivo Tumor Models for the Evaluation of Anticancer Nanoparticles

Multiple studies about tumor biology have revealed the determinant role of the tumor microenvironment in cancer progression, resulting from the dynamic interactions between tumor cells and surrounding stromal cells within the extracellular matrix. This malignant microenvironment highly impacts the efficacy of anticancer nanoparticles by displaying drug resistance mechanisms, as well as intrinsic physical and biochemical barriers, which hamper their intratumoral accumulation and biological activity.Currently, two-dimensional cell cultures are used as the initial screening method in vitro for testing cytotoxic nanocarriers. However, this fails to mimic the tumor heterogeneity, as well as the three-dimensional tumor architecture and pathophysiological barriers, leading to an inaccurate pharmacological evaluation.Biomimetic 3D in vitro tumor models, on the other hand, are emerging as promising tools for more accurately assessing nanoparticle activity, owing to their ability to recapitulate certain features of the tumor microenvironment and thus provide mechanistic insights into nanocarrier intratumoral penetration and diffusion rates.Notwithstanding, in vivo validation of nanomedicines remains irreplaceable at the preclinical stage, and a vast variety of more advanced in vivo tumor models is currently available. Such complex animal models (e.g., genetically engineered mice and patient-derived xenografts) are capable of better predicting nanocarrier clinical efficiency, as they closely resemble the heterogeneity of the human tumor microenvironment.Herein, the development of physiologically more relevant in vitro and in vivo tumor models for the preclinical evaluation of anticancer nanoparticles will be discussed, as well as the current limitations and future challenges in clinical translation.

Nanotechnology Assisted Targeted Drug Delivery for Bone Disorders: Potentials and Clinical Perspectives

Nanotechnology and its allied modalities have brought revolution in tissue engineering and bone healing. The research on translating the findings of the basic and preclinical research into clinical practice is ongoing. Advances in the synthesis and design of nanomaterials along with advances in genomics and proteomics, and tissue engineering have opened a bright future for bone healing and orthopedic technology. Studies have shown promising outcomes in the design and fabrication of porous implant substrates that can be exploited as bone defect augmentation and drug-carrier devices. However, there are dozens of applications in orthopedic traumatology and bone healing for nanometer-sized entities, structures, surfaces, and devices with characteristic lengths ranging from tens 10s of nanometers to a few micrometers. Nanotechnology has made promising advances in the synthesis of scaffolds, delivery mechanisms, controlled modification of surface topography and composition, and biomicroelectromechanical systems. This study reviews the basic and translational sciences and clinical implications of the nanotechnology in tissue engineering and bone diseases. Recent advances in NPs assisted osteogenic agents, nanocomposites, and scaffolds for bone disorders are discussed.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery System: A Patient-Friendly Chemotherapy for Oncology

Chemotherapy is widely used to treat cancer. The toxic effect of conventional chemotherapeutic drugs on healthy cells leads to serious toxic and side effects of conventional chemotherapy. The application of nanotechnology in tumor chemotherapy can increase the specificity of anticancer agents, increase the killing effect of tumors, and reduce toxic and side effects. Currently, a variety of formulations based on nanoparticles (NPs) for delivering chemotherapeutic drugs have been put into clinical use, and several others are in the stage of development or clinical trials. In this review, after briefly introducing current cancer chemotherapeutic methods and their limitations, we describe the clinical applications and advantages and disadvantages of several different types of NPs-based chemotherapeutic agents. We have summarized a lot of information in tables and figures related to the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs based on NPs and the design of NPs with active targeting capabilities.

[Development of Nano-DDS Carriers for Control of Spatial Distribution Using Multi-color Deep Imaging]

Because active-targeted liposomes are very complex formulations, quality characteristics of functional lipids have not been defined yet, and this is a major obstacle in clinical application of active targeted liposomes. We have developed high functionality and quality (HFQ) lipids, which define quality characteristics of functional lipids for clinical drug delivery system (DDS) applications. Because HFQ lipids are designed to enable facile and rapid functionalization of DDS carrier by simple and one-step mixing, we are expanding applications for not only liposomes but also exosomes and cells. Recently, we developed multi-color deep imaging by tissue clearing for analysis of spatial distribution of DDS in various tissues. Nanocarriers are usually non-uniformly distributed in solid tumors because of their heterogeneity. Especially, in refractory cancer such as pancreatic cancer, the presence of collagen and blood vessels greatly affects intra-tumor distribution of DDS carrier. Therefore information on spatial relations between the tissue structure and DDS carrier is important to regulate precisely intra-tumor distribution of DDS carrier. Recently, our group has established multi-color deep imaging to analyze spatial distribution of stromal collagen, liposomes, and blood vessels in pancreatic tumor tissue. In this review, we present recent research in developing HFQ lipids. Moreover, current status of research on DDS for pancreatic cancer treatment is reviewed.

Reversal of multidrug resistance in leukemia cells using a transferrin-modified nanomicelle encapsulating both doxorubicin and psoralen

To ameliorate multidrug resistance (MDR) observed in leukemia cells, nanomicelles modified by transferrin (Tf-M-DOX/PSO), coencapsulating doxorubicin (DOX) and psoralen (PSO), were designed, synthesized and tested in K562 and doxorubicin-resistant K562 (K562/DOX) cells. In vitro drug release kinetics for constructed nanomicelles were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. Characterization of the produced nanomicelles was completed using transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Uptake of the nanomicelles in K562 cells was investigated using both confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. Apoptosis levels as well as the expression of glycoprotein (P-gp) were analyzing by western blotting and flow cytometry. Cellular cytotoxicity resulting from the exposure of nanomicelles was evaluated using MTT assays. The nanomicelles all showed mild release of DOX in PBS solution. In K562/DOX cells, Tf-M-Dox/PSO exhibited higher uptake compared to the other nanomicelles observed. Furthermore, cellular cytotoxicity when exposed to Tf-M-Dox/PSO was 2.8 and 1.6-fold greater than observed in the unmodified DOX and Tf-nanomicelles loaded with DOX alone, respectively. Tf-M-Dox/PSO strongly increased apoptosis of K562/DOX cells. Finally, the reversal of the drug resistance when cells are exposed to Tf-M-DOX/PSO was associated with P-gp expression inhibition. The Tf-M-Dox/PSO nanomicelle showed a reversal of MDR, with enhanced cellular uptake and delivery release.

Multifunctional, CD44v6-Targeted ORMOSIL Nanoparticles Enhance Drugs Toxicity in Cancer Cells

Drug-loaded, PEGylated, organic-modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles prepared by microemulsion condensation of vinyltriethoxysilane (VTES) were investigated as potential nanovectors for cancer therapy. To target cancer stem cells, anti-CD44v6 antibody and hyaluronic acid (HA) were conjugated to amine-functionalized PEGylated ORMOSIL nanoparticles through thiol-maleimide and amide coupling chemistries, respectively. Specific binding and uptake of conjugated nanoparticles were studied on cells overexpressing the CD44v6 receptor. Cytotoxicity was subsequently evaluated in the same cells after the uptake of the nanoparticles. Internalization of nanocarriers loaded with the anticancer drug 3N-cyclopropylmethyl-7-phenyl-pyrrolo- quinolinone (MG2477) into cells resulted in a substantial increase of the cytotoxicity with respect to the free formulation. Targeting with anti-CD44v6 antibodies or HA yielded nanoparticles with similar effectiveness, in their optimized formulation.

Enhanced Efficacy of PEGylated Liposomal Cisplatin: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

This study aims to evaluate the potency of cisplatin (Cispt)-loaded liposome (LCispt) and PEGylated liposome (PLCispt) as therapeutic nanoformulations in the treatment of bladder cancer (BC). Cispt was loaded into liposomes using reverse-phase evaporation method, and the formulations were characterized using dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy, dialysis membrane, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) methods. The results showed that the particles were formed in spherical monodispersed shapes with a nanoscale size (221–274 nm) and controlled drug release profile. The cytotoxicity effects of LCispt and PLCispt were assessed in an in vitro environment, and the results demonstrated that PLCispt caused a 2.4- and 1.9-fold increase in the cytotoxicity effects of Cispt after 24 and 48 h, respectively. The therapeutic and toxicity effects of the formulations were also assessed on BC-bearing rats. The results showed that PLCispt caused a 4.8-fold increase in the drug efficacy (tumor volume of 11 ± 0.5 and 2.3 ± 0.1 mm³ in Cispt and PLCispt receiver rats, respectively) and a 3.3-fold decrease in the toxicity effects of the drug (bodyweight gains of 3% and 10% in Cispt and PLCispt receiver rats, respectively). The results of toxicity were also confirmed by histopathological studies. Overall, this study suggests that the PEGylation of LCispt is a promising approach to achieve a nanoformulation with enhanced anticancer effects and reduced toxicity compared to Cispt for the treatment of BC.

Liposomal Nanostructures for Drug Delivery in Gastrointestinal Cancers

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers like liver, pancreatic, colorectal, and gastric cancer remain some of the most difficult and aggressive cancers. Nanoparticles like liposomes had been approved in the clinic for cancer therapy dating as far back as 1995. Over the years, liposomal formulations have come a long way, facing several roadblocks and failures, and advancing by optimizing formulations and incorporating novel design approaches to navigate therapeutic delivery challenges. The first liposomal formulation for a GI cancer drug was approved recently in 2015, setting the stage for further clinical developments of liposome-based delivery systems for therapies against GI malignancies. This article reviews the design considerations and strategies that can be used to deliver drugs to GI tumors, the wide range of therapeutic agents that have been explored in preclinical as well as clinical studies, and the current therapies that are being investigated in the clinic against GI malignancies.

FF-10832 enables long survival via effective gemcitabine accumulation in a lethal murine peritoneal dissemination model

Chemotherapy has been the treatment of choice for unresectable peritoneal dissemination; however, it is difficult to eradicate such tumors because of poor drug delivery. To solve this issue, we developed FF‐10832 as liposome‐encapsulated gemcitabine to maintain a high concentration of gemcitabine in peritoneal tumors from the circulation and ascites. A syngeneic mouse model of peritoneal dissemination using murine Colon26 cell line was selected to compare the drug efficacy and pharmacokinetics of FF‐10832 with those of gemcitabine. Despite the single intravenous administration, FF‐10832 treatment enabled long‐term survival of the lethal model mice as compared with those treated with gemcitabine. Pharmacokinetic analysis clarified that FF‐10832 could achieve a more effective gemcitabine delivery to peritoneal tumors owing to better stability in the circulation and ascites. The novel liposome‐encapsulated gemcitabine FF‐10832 may be a curative therapeutic tool for cancer patients with unresectable peritoneal dissemination via the effective delivery of gemcitabine to target tumors.

Intraperitoneal chemotherapy for peritoneal metastases using sustained release formula of cisplatin-incorporated gelatin hydrogel granules

PURPOSE

We previously reported the effectiveness of gelatin microspheres incorporating cisplatin in a mouse model of peritoneal metastases. In this study, we report our new complete sustained-release formula of gelatin hydrogel granules incorporating cisplatin (GHG-CDDP), which exerted a good anti-tumor effect with less toxicity.

METHODS

GHG-CDDP was prepared without organic solvents to enable its future clinical use. The pharmaceutical characterization of GHG-CDDP was performed, and its in vivo degradability was evaluated. The anti-tumor effect was evaluated using a murine peritoneal metastasis model of the human gastric cancer MKN45-Luc cell line.

RESULTS

Our new manufacturing process dramatically reduced the initial burst of CDDP release to approximately 2% (wt), while the previous product had a 25-30% initial burst. In intraperitoneal degradation tests, approximately 30% of GHG-CDDP remained in the murine abdominal cavity 7 days after intraperitoneal injection and disappeared within 3 weeks. GHG-CDDP significantly suppressed the in vivo tumor growth (p = 0.02) and prolonged the survival time (p = 0.0012) compared with the control. In contrast, free CDDP did not show a significant therapeutic effect at any dose. Weight loss and hematological toxicity were also significantly ameliorated.

CONCLUSIONS

GHG-CDDP is a promising treatment option for peritoneal metastases through the complete sustained-release of CDDP with less systemic toxicity.

Pharmacokinetics of cisplatin during open and minimally-invasive secondary cytoreductive surgery plus HIPEC in women with platinum-sensitive recurrent ovarian cancer: a prospective study

Objective

Evidences from animal models seem to suggest that minimally invasive surgery may enhance cisplatin diffusion when the drug is administered in the context of post-operative hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC). The present study evaluates the cisplatin pharmacokinetic profile in a prospective series of women with platinum sensitive recurrent epithelial ovarian cancer treated with open secondary cytoreductive surgery (O-SCS) or minimally-invasive secondary cytoreductive surgery (MI-SCS).

Methods

Cisplatin levels were assessed at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 120 minutes in: 1) blood samples, 2) peritoneal perfusate, and 3) peritoneal biopsies at the end of HIPEC. Median C_max has been used to identify women with high and low drug levels. Progression-free survival (PFS) was calculated as the time elapsed between SCS+HIPEC and secondary recurrence or last follow-up visit.

Results

Nine (45.0%) women received MI-SCS, and 11 (55.0%) O-SCS. At 60 minutes, median cisplatin C_max in peritoneal tissue was higher in patients treated with MI-SCS compared to O-SCS (C_max=8.262 µg/mL vs. C_max=4.057 µg/mL). Furthermore, median cisplatin plasma C_max was higher in patients treated with MI-SCS compared to O-SCS (C_max=0.511 vs. C_max=0.254 µg/mL; p-value=0.012) at 120 minutes. With a median follow-up time of 24 months, women with higher cisplatin peritoneal C_max showed a longer PFS compared to women with low cisplatin peritoneal levels (2-years PFS=70% vs. 35%; p-value=0.054).

Conclusions

We demonstrate for the first time that minimally invasive route enhances cisplatin peritoneal tissue uptake during HIPEC, further evaluations are needed to confirm the correlation between peritoneal cisplatin levels after HIPEC and survival.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01539785

Vascular targeted chitosan-derived nanoparticles as docetaxel carriers for gastric cancer therapy

A gastric cancer angiogenesis marker peptide, GX1, is promising to be a desirable ligand for anti-angiogenesis targeted drug of gastric cancer treatment. In this study, GX1 was utilized to fabricate a multifunctional vascular targeting docetaxel (DCT)-loaded nanoparticle with N-deoxycholic acid glycol chitosan (DGC) as the carrier and GX1-PEG-deoxycholic acid (GPD) conjugate as the targeting ligand. The mean size of obtained GX1-DGC-DCT was 150.9 nm with a narrow size distribution and their shape was spherical with smooth surface texture. The in vitro drug release test revealed a sustained release manner and an acid pH could accelerate the release compared with the neutral pH. Furthermore, GX1-DGC-DCT showed stronger cytotoxicity against co-cultured gastric cancer cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (co-HUVEC) than DCT within 100 μM. In addition, GX1 efficiently enhanced the cellular uptake of nanoparticles in co-HUVEC cells as confirmed by confocal fluorescence scanning microscopy. Moreover, in vivo delivery of GX1-DGC-DCT was demonstrated to inhibit tumor growth in SGC791 tumor-bearing mice with tumor inhibition rate (TIR) of 67.05% and no weight loss of mice was observed. The anti-tumor effects were further confirmed by H&E and TUNEL analysis. Therefore, this new drug delivery system represents a potential strategy for gastric cancer therapy.

A fully absorbable biomimetic polymeric micelle loaded with cisplatin as drug carrier for cancer therapy

cis-dichlorodiammineplatinum(II) (CDDP)-loaded polymeric micelles for cancer therapy have been developed to reduce the serious side effects of cisplatin CDDP. Herein, polymeric micelles incorporated with cisplatin are prepared based on the complexation between CDDP and hydrophilic poly (_L-glutamic acid)-b-poly (2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PLG-b-PMPC) diblock copolymers. These CDDP-loaded micelles possess an average size of 91 nm with narrow distribution, providing remarkable stability in media containing proteins. The release of CDDP from the micelles is faster at pH 5.0 and pH 6.0 than that at pH 7.4 and in a sustained manner without initial burst release. In addition, there is almost no difference in cellular uptake between these CDDP-loaded micelles and free CDDP. Moreover, in vitro cytotoxicity test shows they possess high efficacy to kill 4T1 cells as compared with free drug. Thus, PLG-b-PMPC copolymer might be a promising carrier for CDDP incorporating in cancer therapy.

Preparation, Characterization, and Antioxidant Activity Evaluation of Liposomes Containing Water-Soluble Hydroxytyrosol from Olive

Due to the multiple hydroxyl groups in its structure, hydroxytyrosol (HT) is very sensitive to air and light and has very strong instability and hydrophilicity that affect its biological activity. This study attempted to prepare liposomes containing water-soluble HT to improve the bioavailability and biocompatibility of the target drug. The preparation process factors (temperature, mass ratio of phospholipid (PL) and cholesterol (CH), Tween-80 volume, HT mass) were studied and response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the conditions. The results demonstrated that by using a temperature of 63 °C, mass ratio of PL and CH 4.5:1, HT mass 5 mg and Tween-80 volume of 6 mL, HT liposomes with an encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 45.08% were prepared. It was found that the particle sizes of the HT liposomes were well distributed in the range of 100–400 nm. Compared to free HT, prepared HT liposomes had better stability and a distinct slow release effect in vitro. Besides, HT liposomes presented better DPPH radical scavenging activity than free HT, which could be due to the fact that HT was encapsulated fully inside the liposomes. In addition, the encapsulation mechanism of HT was evaluated. In summary, the results indicated that HT liposome could enhance the antioxidant activity and was a promising formulation for prolonging the biological activity time of the target drug.

Quantitative Examination of the Active Targeting Effect: The Key Factor for Maximal Tumor Accumulation and Retention of Short-Circulated Biopolymeric Nanocarriers

Targeted and nontargeted biopolymeric nanoparticles with identical hydrodynamic sizes and surface charges were quantitatively examined in terms of the pharmacokinetic and biodistribution differences in detail. In adding cancer cell targeting folate molecules to the surface of the heparin nanocarriers, the amount of drug delivered to the tumor is doubled, and tumor growth inhibition is significantly enhanced. The folate-targeted heparin particles offered similar therapeutic potentials compared to their synthetic long-circulating analogues, thus presenting a viable alternative for drug-delivery vehicle construction using biological polymers, which are easier for the body to eliminate.

Platinum drugs: from Pt(II) compounds, Pt(IV) prodrugs, to Pt nanocrystals/nanoclusters

Platinum (Pt) based drugs, such as cisplatin, are widely used as anti-cancer agents, but their severe adverse reactions and resistance of cancer patients have limited their board clinical use. For the last few decades, Pt(II) compounds, Pt(IV) prodrugs as well as smart drug delivery systems have been developed to overcome these problems. However, most conventional strategies rely on the similar anti-cancer mechanism with cisplatin and consequently only achieve limited success. Recently, Pt nanocrystals/nanoclusters (Pt NCs), with a brand new anti-cancer mechanism, have shown a promising potential in targeted cancer therapy, especially in Pt resistance circumvention. This review is helpful to understand the research strategies of Pt drugs, particularly, the recent developments and medical applications of Pt NCs.

Cyclic RGD peptide-modified liposomal drug delivery system for targeted oral apatinib administration: enhanced cellular uptake and improved therapeutic effects

Apatinib is an oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor, which selectively targets vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 and has the potential to treat many tumors therapeutically. Cyclic arginylglycylaspartic acid (cRGD)- and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified liposomes (cRGD-Lipo-PEG) were constructed to act as a targeted delivery system for the delivery of apatinib to the human colonic cancer cell line, HCT116. These cRGD-modified liposomes specifically recognized integrin α_vβ₃ and exhibited greater uptake efficiency with respect to delivering liposomes into HCT116 cells when compared to nontargeted liposomes (Lipo-PEG), as well as greater death of tumor cells and apoptosis. The mechanism by which cRGD-Lipo-PEG targets cells was elucidated further with competition assays. To determine the anticancer efficacy in vivo, nude mice were implanted with HCT116 xenografts and treated with apatinib-loaded liposomes or free apatinib intravenously or via intragastric administration. The active and passive targeting of cRGD-Lipo-PEG led to significant tumor treatment targeting ability, better inhibition of tumor growth, and less toxicity when compared with treatments using uncombined apatinib. The results presented strongly support the case for cRGD-Lipo-PEG representing a targeted delivery system for apatinib in the treatment of colonic cancer.

Anti-angiogenic nanotherapy via active targeting systems to tumors and adipose tissue vasculature

Sophisticated drug delivery systems (DDS) are required for delivering drugs, especially macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins, to their sites of action. Therefore it is a prerequisite that future DDS are designed to selectively target a tissue. In this review, we focus on systems that actively target the vasculature in tumors or adipose tissues. For targeting tumor vasculatur, a new strategy referred to as dual-targeting is proposed that uses a combination of a receptor specific ligand and a cell penetrating peptide, which can induce the synergistic enhancement of tissue selectivity under in vivo conditions. A novel pH-sensitive cationic lipid was designed to enhance the endosomal release of encapsulated compounds such as siRNA as well as to improve the stability in blood circulation after intravenous administration. A cyclic RGD peptide is used as an active targeting ligand. For targeting adipose vasculature, prohibitin, which is expressed on the surface of adipose endothelial cells, was targeted with KGGRAKD peptides on the surface of PEGylated nanoparticles. Prohibitin targeted nanoparticles (PTNP) encapsulating Cytochrome c (CytC) can selectively target adipose vasculature by optimizing the lengths of the PEG linkers and can deliver CytC to adipose endothelial cells. PTNP can successfully induce anti-obese effects as well as apoptosis by delivering CytC to the cytosol in endothelial cells. Unexpectedly, the EPR (enhanced permeability and retention) effect, which is usually observed in tumor tissue, was also observed in the adipose vasculature, especially in obese mice, where PEGylated nanoparticles can pass through the endothelial barriers in adipose tissue. We believe that these achievements in active targeting will allow a greatly expanded use of DDS for nanomedicines.

Nanoparticle formulations of cisplatin for cancer therapy

The genotoxic agent cisplatin, used alone or in combination with radiation and/or other chemotherapeutic agents, is an important first-line chemotherapy for a broad range of cancers. The clinical utility of cisplatin is limited both by intrinsic and acquired resistance and dose-limiting normal tissue toxicity. That cisplatin shows little selectivity for tumor versus normal tissue may be a critical factor limiting its value. To overcome the low therapeutic ratio of the free drug, macromolecular, liposomal, and nanoparticle drug delivery systems have been explored toward leveraging the enhanced permeability and retention effect and promoting delivery of cisplatin to tumors. Here, we survey recent advances in nanoparticle formulations of cisplatin, focusing on agents that show promise in preclinical or clinical settings. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2016, 8:776-791. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1390 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Therapy: What Is Available and What Is Yet to Come

Cancer is a leading cause of death in many countries around the world. However, the efficacy of current standard treatments for a variety of cancers is suboptimal. First, most cancer treatments lack specificity, meaning that these treatments affect both cancer cells and their normal counterparts. Second, many anticancer agents are highly toxic, and thus, limit their use in treatment. Third, a number of cytotoxic chemotherapeutics are highly hydrophobic, which limits their utility in cancer therapy. Finally, many chemotherapeutic agents exhibit short half-lives that curtail their efficacy. As a result of these deficiencies, many current treatments lead to side effects, noncompliance, and patient inconvenience due to difficulties in administration. However, the application of nanotechnology has led to the development of effective nanosized drug delivery systems known commonly as nanoparticles. Among these delivery systems, lipid-based nanoparticles, particularly liposomes, have shown to be quite effective at exhibiting the ability to: 1) improve the selectivity of cancer chemotherapeutic agents; 2) lower the cytotoxicity of anticancer drugs to normal tissues, and thus, reduce their toxic side effects; 3) increase the solubility of hydrophobic drugs; and 4) offer a prolonged and controlled release of agents. This review will discuss the current state of lipid-based nanoparticle research, including the development of liposomes for cancer therapy, different strategies for tumor targeting, liposomal formulation of various anticancer drugs that are commercially available, recent progress in liposome technology for the treatment of cancer, and the next generation of lipid-based nanoparticles.