Induction of tissue-type plasminogen activator and 72-kDa type-IV collagenase by ionizing radiation in rat astrocytes

Coexistence of dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy and Parkinson's disease: An autopsy case report

We report an autopsy case of a 56-year-old male patient with the coexistence of dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA) and Parkinson's disease (PD). He presented with gait instability and dysarthria for 10 years. The removed brain showed general atrophy (988 g) with depigmentation of the substantia nigra. The neocortex and deep gray matter, including the red nucleus, subthalamic nuclei, and globus pallidus, were atrophic, and grumose degeneration of the cerebellar dentate nucleus was observed. Polyglutamine- and p62-positive neuronal inclusions were present and widespread in the areas mentioned above. Interestingly, this case also had brainstem-predominant PD pathology with α-synuclein-positive Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. Generalized white matter atrophy with patchy loss of astrocytes in the white matter suggested glial dysfunction by elongated CAG repeats in the atrophin 1 gene (atrophin 1). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) fragment analysis revealed increased CAG repeats (61) on atrophin 1 encoding atrophin 1. The patient had a family history of DRPLA, including his daughter, who was confirmed positive on genetic testing (CAG repeat: 65). His father, brother, and niece were suspected of having the disease. Clinicopathologically, all of the above findings are consistent with the coexistence of DRPLA and PD. So far, various overlapping neurodegenerative disorders have been reported, but the coexistence of DRPLA and PD has never been demonstrated in the published literature. Even though the exact time of PD development is unknown in this case, PD might develop after DRPLA, and the overwhelming symptoms of DRPLA might mask those of PD. Here, we report a clinicopathologically definite case of the coexistence of DRPLA and PD. White matter degeneration with patchy loss of astrocytes was another remarkable finding of this case.

Effect of MMP-2 gene silencing on radiation-induced DNA damage in human normal dermal fibroblasts and breast cancer cells

Introduction

Diagnostic and therapeutic ionizing radiation (IR) is one of the well known long term risk factors of breast cancer. Extremely lethal consequences of IR causes double-strand breaks, which are mainly responsible for genomic instability, altered gene expression, and cell death.

Findings

This study evaluated the effect of matrix metalloproteinases-2 (MMP-2) gene silencing using MMP-2 shRNA expression plasmids (pMMP-2) on IR induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage by MTT, dead green, γH2AX and comet assays in human normal dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) and MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. IR has decreased the viability of HDFs and MCF-7 cells with increasing IR (2-10Gy). IR induced DNA damage in both HDFs and MCF-7 cells. However, pMMP-2 transfection has increased the viability of irradiated HDFs (10Gy) and significantly decreased the viability of irradiated MCF-7 cells (10Gy). Further, DNA damage in terms of γH2AX foci decreased with pMMP-2 transfection in irradiated HDFs (10Gy) and increased in irradiated MCF-7 cells (10Gy). In addition, MMP-2 gene silencing using pMMP-2 decreased comet tail length in irradiated HDFs but increased in irradiated MCF-7 cells.

Conclusions

The results conclude that pMMP-2 has protected HDFs and sensitized the MCF-7 cells from IR induced DNA damage. This differential response might be due to IR induced MMP-2 distinctive ROS generation in HDFs and MCF-7 cells.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s41021-019-0131-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Inhibition of Radiation and Temozolomide-Induced Invadopodia Activity in Glioma Cells Using FDA-Approved Drugs

The most common primary central nervous system tumor in adults is the glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). The highly invasive nature of GBM cells is a significant factor resulting in the inevitable tumor recurrence and poor patient prognosis. Tumor cells utilize structures known as invadopodia to faciliate their invasive phenotype. In this study, utilizing an array of techniques, including gelatin matrix degradation assays, we show that GBM cell lines can form functional gelatin matrix degrading invadopodia and secrete matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), a known invadopodia-associated matrix-degrading enzyme. Furthermore, these cellular activities were augmented in cells that survived radiotherapy and temozolomide treatment, indicating that surviving cells may possess a more invasive phenotype posttherapy. We performed a screen of FDA-approved agents not previously used for treating GBM patients with the aim of investigating their "anti-invadopodia" and cytotoxic effects in GBM cell lines and identified a number that reduced cell viability, as well as agents which also reduced invadopodia activity. Importantly, two of these, pacilitaxel and vinorelbine tartrate, reduced radiation/temozolomide-induced invadopodia activity. Our data demonstrate the value of testing previously approved drugs (repurposing) as potential adjuvant agents for the treatment of GBM patients to reduce invadopodia activity, inhibit GBM cell invasion, and potentially improve patient outcome.

Dose-dependent hepatic transcriptional responses in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) exposed to sublethal doses of gamma radiation

Due to the production of free radicals, gamma radiation may pose a hazard to living organisms. The high-dose radiation effects have been extensively studied, whereas the ecotoxicity data on low-dose gamma radiation is still limited. The present study was therefore performed using Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) to characterize effects of low-dose (15, 70 and 280 mGy) gamma radiation after short-term (48h) exposure. Global transcriptional changes were studied using a combination of high-density oligonucleotide microarrays and quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs; in this article the phrase gene expression is taken as a synonym of gene transcription, although it is acknowledged that gene expression can also be regulated, e.g., at protein stability and translational level) were determined and linked to their biological meanings predicted using both Gene Ontology (GO) and mammalian ortholog-based functional analyses. The plasma glucose level was also measured as a general stress biomarker at the organism level. Results from the microarray analysis revealed a dose-dependent pattern of global transcriptional responses, with 222, 495 and 909 DEGs regulated by 15, 70 and 280 mGy gamma radiation, respectively. Among these DEGs, only 34 were commonly regulated by all radiation doses, whereas the majority of differences were dose-specific. No GO functions were identified at low or medium doses, but repression of DEGs associated with GO functions such as DNA replication, cell cycle regulation and response to reactive oxygen species (ROS) were observed after 280mGy gamma exposure. Ortholog-based toxicity pathway analysis further showed that 15mGy radiation affected DEGs associated with cellular signaling and immune response; 70mGy radiation affected cell cycle regulation and DNA damage repair, cellular energy production; and 280mGy radiation affected pathways related to cell cycle regulation and DNA repair, mitochondrial dysfunction and immune functions. Twelve genes representative of key pathways found in this study were verified by qPCR. Potential common MoAs of low-dose gamma radiation may include induction of oxidative stress, DNA damage and disturbance of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Although common MoAs were proposed, a number of DEGs and pathways were still found to be dose-specific, potentially indicating multiple mechanisms of action (MOAs) of low-dose gamma radiation in fish. In addition, plasma glucose displayed an apparent increase with increasing radiation doses, although the results were not significantly different from the control. These findings suggested that sublethal doses of gamma radiation may cause dose-dependent transcriptional changes in the liver of Atlantic salmon after short-term exposure. The current study predicted multiple MoA for gamma radiation and may aid future impact assessment of environmental radioactivity in fish.

Whole brain radiation-induced cognitive impairment: pathophysiological mechanisms and therapeutic targets

Radiation therapy, the most commonly used for the treatment of brain tumors, has been shown to be of major significance in tu-mor control and survival rate of brain tumor patients. About 200,000 patients with brain tumor are treated with either partial large field or whole brain radiation every year in the United States. The use of radiation therapy for treatment of brain tumors, however, may lead to devastating functional deficits in brain several months to years after treatment. In particular, whole brain radiation therapy results in a significant reduction in learning and memory in brain tumor patients as long-term consequences of treatment. Although a number of in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the pathogenesis of radiation-mediated brain injury, the cel-lular and molecular mechanisms by which radiation induces damage to normal tissue in brain remain largely unknown. Therefore, this review focuses on the pathophysiological mechanisms of whole brain radiation-induced cognitive impairment and the iden-tification of novel therapeutic targets. Specifically, we review the current knowledge about the effects of whole brain radiation on pro-oxidative and pro-inflammatory pathways, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)/tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) system and extracellular matrix (ECM), and physiological angiogenesis in brain. These studies may provide a foundation for defin-ing a new cellular and molecular basis related to the etiology of cognitive impairment that occurs among patients in response to whole brain radiation therapy. It may also lead to new opportunities for therapeutic interventions for brain tumor patients who are undergoing whole brain radiation therapy.

MMP-2 siRNA inhibits radiation-enhanced invasiveness in glioma cells

Background

Our previous work and that of others strongly suggests a relationship between the infiltrative phenotype of gliomas and the expression of MMP-2. Radiation therapy, which represents one of the mainstays of glioma treatment, is known to increase cell invasion by inducing MMP-2. Thus, inhibition of MMP-2 provides a potential means for improving the efficacy of radiotherapy for malignant glioma.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We have tested the ability of a plasmid vector-mediated MMP-2 siRNA (p-MMP-2) to modulate ionizing radiation-induced invasive phenotype in the human glioma cell lines U251 and U87. Cells that were transfected with p-MMP-2 with and without radiation showed a marked reduction of MMP-2 compared to controls and pSV-transfected cells. A significant reduction of proliferation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis of cells transfected with p-MMP-2 and in combination with radiation was observed compared to controls. Western blot analysis revealed that radiation-enhanced levels of VEGF, VEGFR-2, pVEGFR-2, p-FAK, and p-p38 were inhibited with p-MMP-2-transfected cells. TUNEL staining showed that radiation did not induce apoptosis in U87 and U251 cells while a significant increase in TUNEL-positive cells was observed when irradiated cells were simultaneously transfected with p-MMP-2 as compared to controls. Intracranial tumor growth was predominantly inhibited in the animals treated with p-MMP-2 alone or in combination with radiation compared to controls.

Conclusion/Significance

MMP-2 inhibition, mediated by p-MMP-2 and in combination with radiation, significantly reduced tumor cell migration, invasion, angiogenesis and tumor growth by modulating several important downstream signaling molecules and directing cells towards apoptosis. Taken together, our results demonstrate the efficacy of p-MMP-2 in inhibiting radiation-enhanced tumor invasion and progression and suggest that it may act as a potent adjuvant for radiotherapy in glioma patients.

Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-2 enhances radiosensitivity by abrogating radiation-induced FoxM1-mediated G2/M arrest in A549 lung cancer cells

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), is known to degrade the collagen IV, plays a role in radiation-induced lung injury. We therefore investigated the antitumor effects of combining MMP-2 inhibition using an adenovirus expressing siRNA against MMP-2 (Ad-MMP-2-Si) with radiation therapy (IR) on A549 lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. IR increased MMP-2 mRNA, protein and activity in lung cancer cells. MMP-2 inhibition along with IR enhanced radiosensitivity as determined by clonogenic assay, flow cytometry and TUNEL assay. We show that MMP-2 inhibition prior to irradiation reduced p53 phosphorylation, with a corresponding reduction in the expression of the p53 downstream target gene p21(Cip1/Waf1). Irradiated tumor cells induced the FoxM1-mediated DNA repair gene, XRCC1 and Checkpoint kinases 2/1, which were abrogated with combined treatment of Ad-MMP-2-Si and IR. Further, the combination of Ad-MMP-2-Si with radiotherapy significantly increased antitumor efficacy in vivo compared to either agent alone. Indeed, histological analysis of tumor sections collected from the combination group revealed more apoptotic cells. These studies suggest that MMP-2 inhibition in combination with radiotherapy abrogates G2 cell cycle arrest leading to apoptosis and provide evidence of the antitumor efficacy of combining MMP-2 inhibition with irradiation as a new therapeutic strategy for the effective treatment of NSCLC patients.

Ionizing radiation enhances matrix metalloproteinase-2 secretion and invasion of glioma cells through Src/epidermal growth factor receptor-mediated p38/Akt and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathways

Glioblastoma is a severe type of primary brain tumor, and its highly invasive character is considered to be a major therapeutic obstacle. Several recent studies have reported that ionizing radiation (IR) enhances the invasion of tumor cells, but the mechanisms for this effect are not well understood. In this study, we investigated the possible signaling mechanisms involved in IR-induced invasion of glioma cells. IR increased the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 promoter activity, mRNA transcription, and protein secretion along with the invasiveness of glioma cells lacking functional PTEN (U87, U251, U373, and C6) but not those harboring wild-type (WT)-PTEN (LN18 and LN428). IR activated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt, and mammalian target of rapamycin, and blockade of these kinases by specific inhibitors (LY294002, Akt inhibitor IV, and rapamycin, respectively) and transfection of dominant-negative (DN) mutants (DN-p85 and DN-Akt) or WT-PTEN suppressed the IR-induced MMP-2 secretion in U251 and U373 cells. In addition, inhibitors of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR; AG490 and AG1478), Src (PP2), and p38 (SB203580), EGFR neutralizing antibody, and transfection of DN-Src and DN-p38 significantly blocked IR-induced Akt phosphorylation and MMP-2 secretion. IR-induced activation of EGFR was suppressed by PP2, whereas LY294002 and SB203580 did not affect the activations of p38 and PI3K, respectively. Finally, these kinase inhibitors significantly reduced the IR-induced invasiveness of these cells on Matrigel. Taken together, our findings suggest that IR induces Src-dependent EGFR activation, which triggers the p38/Akt and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways, leading to increased MMP-2 expression and heightened invasiveness of PTEN mutant glioma cells.

Radiation-Induced Up-regulation of Mmp2 Involves Increased mRNA Stability, Redox Modulation, and MAPK Activation

We have previously observed time- and dose-dependent increases in matrix metalloproteinase 2 (Mmp2) protein levels in rat tubule epithelial cells (NRK52E) after irradiation. However, the mechanism(s) involved remains unclear. In the present study, irradiating NRK52E cells with 0-20 Gy gamma rays was associated with time- and dose-dependent increases in Mmp2 mRNA. Studies using the transcription inhibitor actinomycin D (ActD) added 24 h after irradiation revealed the t(1/2) of Mmp2 mRNA to be approximately 8 h in control cells. In contrast, the increase in Mmp2 mRNA levels in irradiated cells was essentially unchanged after incubation with ActD for up to 12 h. Incubating cells with the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine or ebselen or the MEK pathway inhibitors PD98059 and U0126 prior to irradiation abolished the radiation-induced up-regulation of Mmp2. Irradiating NRK52E cells led to reactive oxygen species-mediated Erk1/2 activation; preincubation with NAC prevented the radiation-induced increase in phosphorylated Erk1/2. Transfecting cells with a dominant-negative ERK mutant completely inhibited radiation-induced Erk phosphorylation and abolished the radiation-induced up-regulation of Mmp2 protein. Thus the radiation-induced up-regulation of Mmp2 mRNA is due in part to increased mRNA stability and is mediated by redox; the ERK MAPK signaling pathway may be involved.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and endothelin-1 immunoreactivity is associated with cerebral white matter damage in dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy

DRPLA is a rare neurodegenerative disorder caused by CAG triplet elongation on chromosome 12p. In addition to neurodegeneration of both the dentatorubral and pallidoluysian systems, there is cerebral white matter damage, especially in older cases. Intracellular accumulation of DRPLA protein is widespread in the central nervous system, and DRPLA protein has been shown to immobilize glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which regulates glycolysis and controls mRNA of tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) in tissue restoration. However, little is known about the pathogenesis regarding the formation of cerebral white matter damage in DRPLA. Therefore, the pathology of this damage was investigated by examining markers of glycolysis and related processes. Nine clinically and pathologically confirmed DRPLA cases were used in the present study. CAG triplet elongation on chromosome 12p was confirmed in all cases where tissue was available for genotyping (seven cases). PAS and immunohistochemistry with antibodies to GFAP, GAPDH and endothelin-1 were used to demonstrate astrocytosis. The polysaccharides storage state with PAS-positive astrocytes was detected in seven cases. GAPDH- and endothelin-1-positive endothelium and astrocytes were observed in two cases with GFAP-positivity. Based on the biochemical process together with the present results, GAPDH and endothelin-1 immunoreactivity is associated with this damage and the mismetabolism of polysaccharides caused by CAG triplet elongation on chromosome 12p may contribute to the formation of the cerebral white matter damage in DRPLA.

Regulation of trophoblast invasion by IL-1beta and TGF-beta1

PROBLEM

To investigate the effect of IL-1beta and TGF-beta1 on trophoblast derived proteases and their inhibitors at the mRNA and protein level for elucidation of the mechanism of trophoblast invasion.

METHOD OF STUDY

Trophoblast derived proteases and their inhibitors were localized in human placental villi by immunohistochemistry, their regulation at mRNA and protein levels were studied using RT-PCR and zymography, respectively, on trophoblast cells in culture.

RESULTS

Trophoblast proteases, matrix metalloproteases (MMP-2, MMP-9), membrane type matrix metalloproteases (MT-MMP1 & 2) and urokinase type plasminogen activator (uPA) were found to be up regulated by IL-1beta while the protease inhibitors, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases (TIMP-1 & 2) and plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAI-1 & 2) to be up regulated by TGF-beta1.

CONCLUSION

Temporo-spatial regulation of trophoblast invasion is the outcome of a balanced interplay between the proteases and their cognate inhibitors. IL-1beta and TGF-beta1 seem to be critical for regulating the protease network thereby effectively controlling the extent to which the trophoblast may invade the maternal endometrium.

Effect of preoperative radiotherapy on matrilysin gene expression in rectal cancer

Matrilysin, a member of matrix metalloproteinase family, is believed to play a significant role in the growth and proliferation of colon cancer cells. Overexpression of the matrilysin gene has been shown to correlate with Dukes' stage and increased metastatic potential in colorectal cancer. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of preoperative high-dose radiotherapy (25 Gy in five fractions over 5 days) on matrilysin (MMP-7) gene expression, in patients with resectable rectal cancer, by a quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Biopsy samples of tumour (n=30) and distant normal mucosa (n=12) from 15 patients were obtained pre- and post-radiotherapy. Messenger (m)RNA was extracted from all of the tissue samples and reverse transcribed to double-stranded cDNA. Quantitative RT-PCR was performed to study the effect of preoperative radiotherapy on matrilysin gene expression in both the tumour and normal mucosal specimens. Matrilysin mRNA values were expressed relative to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) for each sample. In 14 out of 15 cases, matrilysin mRNA was detected in the cancerous tissue. Although all six normal mucosal specimens expressed matrilysin mRNA, the levels were approximately 10-fold lower compared with those seen in the paired tumour samples. Preoperative radiotherapy led to a significant 6- to 7-fold increase (P=0.001) in the expression of matrilysin mRNA in rectal cancer tissue. In contrast, there was no significant change in the matrilysin mRNA expression of normal mucosal specimens post-radiotherapy. Preoperative high-dose radiotherapy upregulates matrilysin gene expression in rectal cancer. Matrilysin inhibition may be a useful preventive or therapeutic adjunct to radiotherapy in rectal cancer.

Ionizing radiation enhances matrix metalloproteinase-2 production in human lung epithelial cells

Radiation pneumonitis is a major complication of radiation therapy. However, the detailed cellular mechanisms have not been clearly defined. Based on the recognition that basement membrane disruption occurs in acute lung injury and that matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 can degrade type IV collagen, one of the major components of the basement membrane, we hypothesized that ionizing radiation would modulate MMP-2 production in human lung epithelial cells. To evaluate this, the modulation of MMP-2 with irradiation was investigated in normal human bronchial epithelial cells as well as in A549 cells. We measured the activity of MMP-2 in the conditioned medium with zymography and the MMP-2 mRNA level with RT-PCR. Both of these cells constitutively expressed 72-kDa gelatinolytic activity, corresponding to MMP-2, and exposure to radiation increased this activity. Consistent with the data of zymography, ionizing radiation increased the level of MMP-2 mRNA. This radiation-induced increase in MMP-2 expression was mediated via p53 because the p53 antisense oligonucleotide abolished the increase in MMP-2 activity as well as the accumulation of p53 after irradiation in A549 cells. These results indicate that MMP-2 expression by human lung epithelial cells is involved in radiation-induced lung injury.

Effects of radiation on the levels of MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 during morphogenic glial-endothelial cell interactions

Radiation-induced damage to the central nervous system (CNS) is believed to target glial or endothelial cells or both, although the pathophysiology of the process is poorly understood. We therefore used a coculture system, in which glioblastoma SNB19 cells induced bovine retinal endothelial (BRE) cells to form capillary-like structures, to examine the role of ionizing radiation in modulating the production of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1). In particular, we irradiated both BRE cells and cocultures of BRE and SNB19 cells with a single dose of X-rays and then estimated the levels of MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1. Gelatin zymography revealed a continuous increase in the levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 during capillary-like structure formation. Of note, the levels of both MMP-2 and MMP-9 were markedly higher in irradiated cocultures at 72 hr after irradiation than in untreated cocultures. Northern blot analysis also demonstrated an increased expression of MMP-9 mRNA in the irradiated cocultures. In addition, TIMP-1 mRNA and protein levels increased up to 48 hr in both irradiated and nonirradiated BRE cells and in nonirradiated cocultures, but there was a significant decrease in the TIMP-1 mRNA and protein levels in irradiated cocultures. It takes about 72 hr for capillaries to form in nonirradiated cocultures, but these capillary networks fail to form in endothelial cells in irradiated cocultures. These findings establish that radiation differentially affects the production of MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 during glial-endothelial morphogenesis and suggest mechanisms by which microvessels in the CNS respond to radiation.

Quantitative image analysis of laminin immunoreactivity in skin basement membrane irradiated with 1 GeV/nucleon iron particles

We previously reported that laminin immunoreactivity in mouse mammary epithelium is altered shortly after whole-body irradiation with 0.8 Gy from 600 MeV/nucleon iron ions but is unaffected after exposure to sparsely ionizing radiation. This observation led us to propose that the effect could be due to protein damage from the high ionization density of the ion tracks. If so, we predicted that it would be evident soon after radiation exposure in basement membranes of other tissues and would depend on ion fluence. To test this hypothesis, we used immunofluorescence, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and image segmentation techniques to quantify changes in the basement membrane of mouse skin epidermis. At 1 h after exposure to 1 GeV/nucleon iron ions with doses from 0.03 to 1.6 Gy, neither the visual appearance nor the mean pixel intensity of laminin in the basement membrane of mouse dorsal skin epidermis was altered compared to sham-irradiated tissue. This result does not support the hypothesis that particle traversal directly affects laminin protein integrity. However, the mean pixel intensity of laminin immunoreactivity was significantly decreased in epidermal basement membrane at 48 and 96 h after exposure to 0.8 Gy 1 GeV/nucleon iron ions. We confirmed this effect with two additional antibodies raised against affinity-purified laminin 1 and the E3 fragment of the long-arm of laminin 1. In contrast, collagen type IV, another component of the basement membrane, was unaffected. Our studies demonstrate quantitatively that densely ionizing radiation elicits changes in skin microenvironments distinct from those induced by sparsely ionizing radiation. Such effects may might contribute to the carcinogenic potential of densely ionizing radiation by altering cellular signaling cascades mediated by cell-extracellular matrix interactions.

Marimastat inhibits neointimal thickening in a model of human arterial intimal hyperplasia

OBJECTIVE

matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) produced by vascular smooth-muscle cells (VSMCs) degrade extracellular matrix and facilitate the migration of these cells. This is a fundamental process in arterial intimal hyperplasia. This study investigated whether Marimastat (a selective but non-specific MMP inhibitor) can prevent intimal hyperplasia in cultured human internal mammary artery (IMA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

segments of IMA from 8 patients were prepared and cultured for 14 days in serum-supplemented medium (control) or in medium supplemented with Marimastat at 2 concentrations (treatment groups). The tissue was fixed, sectioned, stained and neointimal thicknesses measured by computer-aided image analysis. Further sections were cultured in the same manner and prepared for gel enzymography to quantify the production of MMPs.

RESULTS

neointimal thickness was significantly reduced by Marimastat in a dose-dependent manner when compared to controls (p =0.008 Wilcoxon). Gel enzymography demonstrated a reduction in levels of MMP2 and MMP9. This was most significant for the active forms of the enzymes ( p =0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

our results suggest that there is a potential therapeutic role for specific inhibition of the gelatinases in the prevention of human arterial restenosis.

Radiation-induced blood-brain barrier damage in astrocytoma: relation to elevated gelatinase B and urokinase

Successful management of brain tumors prolongs life, raising the risk of delayed injury secondary to the treatment. Radiation therapy, a mainstay of brain tumor treatment, can damage the cerebral blood vessels. Acutely a breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) may be seen, but fibrosis complicates radiation injury in the chronic phase. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and plasminogen activators are two matrix-degrading proteolytic enzymes, which are induced by radiation. They disrupt the basal lamina around cerebral capillaries and open the BBB. We report a patient with an astrocytoma managed by partial resection and external beam irradiation to maximal tolerable doses. The patient later developed malignant brain edema shortly after stereotactic radiosurgery. Tissue obtained during surgical debulking to control the edema showed very high levels of gelatinase B (92 kDa type IV collagenase) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA). Tumor cells were absent from the biopsy and subsequent autopsy specimens, but necrosis with fibrosis of the blood vessels was seen. If abnormal matrix enzyme function participates in the expression of radiation injury, then inhibitors to such enzymes may provide one strategy for controlling cerebrovascular damage after therapeutic brain radiation.

Increased expression after X-irradiation of MUC1 in cultured human colon carcinoma HT-29 cells

The effect of X-irradiation on production of MUC1 was studied with human colon carcinoma HT-29 cells. As evaluated by immunocytochemical staining, the percentages of MUC1-positive cells in cells at 4 days after 6 Gy irradiation and in unirradiated control cells were 52 +/- 3.5% (n = 6) and 26 +/- 2.8% (n = 6), respectively. Flow-cytometric analysis of living cells showed that MUC1 began to rise from day 1, reaching a plateau by day 4 after 6 Gy irradiation. Western blot analysis with monoclonal antibody MY.1E12 against glycosylated MUC1 (mature form) showed dose-dependent increases of two bands (500 and 390 kDa) corresponding to two polymorphic MUC1 alleles. Premature forms of MUC1 (350 and 240 kDa) were detectable with monoclonal antibody HMFG-2 only in irradiated cells, suggesting that new core protein synthesis had been induced. The transcriptional activity of the MUC1 gene was analyzed in terms of transient expression of MUC1-CAT reporter plasmids containing 5'-flanking sequences of the MUC1 gene fused to the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene. The results of CAT assay indicate that enhanced expression of MUC1 in irradiated HT-29 cells was due to upregulation of MUC1 transcription, and required the upstream promoter.

Increased type-IV collagenase (MMP-2 and MMP-9) activity following preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of preoperative high-dose radiotherapy (25 Gy in 5 fractions over 5 days) on the type-IV collagenase protein profile, in patients with resectable rectal cancer, by gelatin zymography. Biopsy samples of tumour and distant normal mucosa from 12 patients with resectable rectal cancer were obtained pre- and post-radiotherapy. Expression of type-IV collagenases (both pro- and active forms) was studied using gelatin zymography. Enzyme levels were normalized for total protein content of each sample. Rectal cancer specimens expressed both pro (72 kDa) and active (62 kDa) forms of MMP-2 but only the pro form of MMP-9 (92 kDa). Normal mucosa showed expression of the pro forms of MMP-2 and MMP-9 while no active form of either enzyme was detected in any of the samples. A significant three- to fourfold increase (P < 0.01) of active matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-2 (62 kDa) was seen in malignant rectal mucosa after radiotherapy. The effect of radiotherapy also led to a twofold increase (P = 0.047) of pro MMP-2 (72 kDa) and a two- to threefold increase (P = 0.03) of the precursor form of MMP-9 (92 kDa). In contrast, in normal mucosa expression of the precursor form of MMP-9 (92 kDa) did not change after radiation, and no significant effect on the levels of pro MMP-2 (72 kDa) was observed. Preoperative high-dose radiotherapy leads to an increase in activity of type-IV collagenases in patients with resectable rectal cancer. Type-IV collagenase inhibition may be a useful therapeutic adjunct to radiotherapy in rectal cancer.

Extracellular matrix degradation by metalloproteinases and central nervous system diseases

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a gene family of neutral proteases involved in normal and pathological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). Normally released into the extracellular space, MMPs break down the extracellular matrix (ECM) to allow cell growth and to facilitate remodeling. Proteolysis becomes pathological when the normal balance between the proteases and their inhibitors, tissue inhibitors to metalloproteinases (TIMPs), is lost. Cancer cells secrete neutral proteases to facilitate spread through the ECM. MMPs increase capillary permeability, and they have been implicated in demyelination. Neurological diseases, such as brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barré, ischemia, Alzheimer's disease, and infections, lead to an increase in the matrix-degrading proteases. Two classes of neutral proteases have been extensively studied, namely the MMPs and the plasminogen activators (PAs), which act in concert to attack the ECM. After proteolytic injury occurs, the process of ECM remodeling begins, which can lead to fibrosis of blood vessels and gliosis. TIMPs are increased after the acute injury and may add to the fibrotic buildup of ECM components. Thus, an imbalance in proteolytic activity either during the acute injury or in recovery may aggravate the underlying disease process. Agents that affect the proteolytic process at any of the regulating sites are potentially useful in therapy.

Expression of extracellular matrix degrading enzymes during migration of xenografted brain cells

Proteolytic enzymes, postulated to create an avenue for cell migration by digestion of host extracellular matrix molecules, have been implicated in neoplastic glial cell migration. A similar process is likely to occur in the developing brain. Fetal rabbit brain fragments transplanted into the striatum of the neonatal Shiverer mouse give rise to cells which migrate from the graft site and differentiate into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Proteinase expression by transplanted brain cells was studied using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Immature donor cells expressed the mRNAs for matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) 1 (collagenase) and 3 (stromelysin). Northern blot analysis of rabbit brain showed that MMP-1 in particular is expressed in the immature rabbit cerebrum and down-regulated during maturation. Immature donor cells exhibited immunoreactivity for urokinase plasminogen activator. However, immunoreactivity was also present in maturing neurons. Donor and host astroglia in the vicinity of grafts were immunoreactive for MMP-2 and tissue-type plasminogen activator. This expression may represent a reactive phenomenon, not specifically related to cell migration, by mature astrocytes. Based upon our findings, MMP-1 appears to be a candidate for involvement in migration of immature brain cells in the cerebrum.

Increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 in the thickened intima of aged rats

-To characterize remodeling of elastic arteries with aging and to investigate its potential mechanisms, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), intracellular adhesive molecule-1 (ICAM-1), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), and fibronectin protein levels were measured in the aortas of young adult (6 months) and aged (30 months) Fischer 344XBN rats. At 30 versus 6 months, the thickness of the intima was 5-fold greater and contained marked increases in TGF-beta and ICAM-1, and fibronectin expression was enhanced throughout the aortic wall. Total MMP-2 protein (Western blot) of 30-month-old rats was increased 8-fold over that of 6-month-old rats (0.166+/-0.032 versus 0.020+/-0.006; P<0.01), and staining and activity were regionally localized to the intima, often near breaks in the internal elastic membrane and lamellae. Early passage, explanted smooth muscle cells (SMC) from aged aorta secreted more MMP-2 than those from young aorta; while basal MMP-2 production did not differ with age, after stimulation with cytokines (interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, or TGF-beta, 10 ng/mL each for 24 hours), MMP-2 production in SMC from 30-month-old rats increased to levels greater than those in 6-month-old rats. Thus, enhanced expression of TGF-beta, MMP-2, and ICAM-1 in the thickened vascular intima of aged rats may in part be produced by exaggerated SMC responses to cytokines and may have potential roles in intimal remodeling with aging.

Localization of proteinase expression in the developing rabbit brain

In developing rabbit brain we studied expression of metalloproteinases (MMP) 1 and 3 by in situ hybridization and MMP2 and tissue and urokinase-type plasminogen activators (tPA and uPA) by immunohistochemistry. All are detected in developing cell populations. Mature olfactory bulb neurons express MMP1 and MMP3. uPA is expressed by glial cells during myelination and by mature cortical neurons. MMP2 is expressed by mature subpial and perivascular astrocytes.

Modulation of fibrinolysis by ionizing radiation

Radiation-induced damage to the central nervous system is believed to be targeted to glial or endothelial cells or both, although the pathophysiology of this process is still poorly understood. A series of experiments were, therefore, conducted, including irradiation to primary rat astrocytes (in vitro) and rat spinal cords (in vivo). The levels of plasminogen activators (uPA and tPA) and their inhibitors (PNI and PAI-1) were determined by fibrin zymography, ELISA, amidolytic activity assay, complex formation, and Western blot analysis. Fibrin zymography revealed the presence of M(r) 48,000 (uPA) and M(r) 68,000 (tPA) lytic bands that were increased in irradiated samples. Three- to four-fold higher levels of tPA and 8- to 10-fold higher levels of uPA were detected in irradiated samples. Western blot analysis confirmed the presence of a 51-kDa band (PAI-1) in irradiated samples. PAI-1 is undetectable in nonirradiated spinal cord. Serum-free medium and cell and spinal cord extracts of nonirradiated samples showed a 43-kDa band (PNI), the intensity of which is decreased in irradiated samples. Four- to five-fold decreased levels of PNI were detected in irradiated serum-free media and cell extracts, but no levels of PNI were detected in irradiated spinal cord extracts. This study provides additional information regarding the proposed roles of plasminogen activators and their inhibitors in the development of CNS damage after irradiation.