Characterization of autologous tumor-specific T-helper 2 cells in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from a patient with metastatic melanoma

Mesenchymal stem cells can prevent or promote the progression of colon cancer based on their timing of administration

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy has been shown to have some therapeutic effects in rodent models and patients with IBD; however, its role in colon tumor models is controversial. In this study, the potential role and mechanisms of bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs) in colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) were investigated.

METHODS

The CAC mouse model was established with azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). The mice were administered an intraperitoneal injection of MSCs once weekly for different periods. The progression of CAC and the cytokine expression in tissues was assessed. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect MSCs localization. Levels of immune cells in the spleen and lamina propria of the colon were detected using flow cytometry. A co-culture of MSCs and naïve T cells was performed to determine the effect of MSCs on naïve T cell differentiation.

RESULTS

Early administration of MSCs inhibited the occurrence of CAC, while late administration promoted the progression of CAC. The inhibitory effect of early injection in mice was characterized by the expression of inflammatory cytokines in colon tissue was decreased, and induction of T regulatory cells (Tregs) infiltration via TGF-β. The promotive effect of late injection was characterized by a shift of T helper (Th) 1/Th2 immune balance toward a Th2 phenotype through IL-4 secretion. IL-12 can reverse this shift to Th2 accumulation in mice.

CONCLUSION

MSCs can curb the progression of colon cancer by inducing Treg accumulation via TGF-β at the early stage of inflammatory transformation but promote the progression of colon cancer by inducing a shift in Th1/Th2 immune balance to Th2 through IL-4 secretion at the late stage. And the immune balance of Th1/Th2 influenced by MSCs could be reversed by IL-12.

SLC26A4 correlates with homologous recombination deficiency and patient prognosis in prostate cancer

Background

Homologous recombination deficiency (HRD) is closely associated with patient prognosis and treatment options in prostate cancer (PCa). However, there is a lack of quantitative indicators related to HRD to predict the prognosis of PCa accurately.

Methods

We screened HRD-related genes based on the HRD scores and constructed an HRD cluster system to explore different clinicopathological, genomic, and immunogenomic patterns among the clusters. A risk signature, HRDscore, was established and evaluated by multivariate Cox regression analysis. We noticed that SLC26A4, a model gene, demonstrated unique potential to predict prognosis and HRD in PCa. Multi-omics analysis was conducted to explore its role in PCa, and the results were validated by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry.

Results

Three HRD clusters were identified with significant differences in patient prognosis, clinicopathological characteristics, biological pathways, immune infiltration characteristics, and regulation of immunomodulators. Further analyses revealed that the constructed HRDscore system was an independent prognostic factor of PCa patients with good stability. Finally, we identified a single gene, SLC26A4, which significantly correlated with prognosis in three independent cohorts. Importantly, SLC26A4 was confirmed to distinguish PCa (AUC for mRNA 0.845; AUC for immunohistochemistry score 0.769) and HRD (AUC for mRNA 0.911; AUC for immunohistochemistry score 0.689) at both RNA and protein levels in our cohort.

Conclusion

This study introduces HRDscore to quantify the HRD pattern of individual PCa patients. Meanwhile, SLC26A4 is a novel biomarker and can reasonably predict the prognosis and HRD in PCa.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03513-5.

Checkpoint Inhibitor Pneumonitis Induced by Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 Therapy in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: Occurrence and Mechanism

Immune checkpointty inhibitors (ICIs), particularly those targeting programmed death 1 (PD-1) and anti-programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1), enhance the antitumor effect by restoring the function of the inhibited effector T cells and produce durable responses in a large variety of metastatic and late patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. Although often well tolerated, the activation of the immune system results in side effects known as immune-related adverse events (irAEs), which can affect multiple organ systems, including the lungs. The occurrence of severe pulmonary irAEs, especially checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis (CIP), is rare but has extremely high mortality and often overlaps with the respiratory symptoms and imaging of primary tumors. The development of CIP may be accompanied by radiation pneumonia and infectious pneumonia, leading to the simultaneous occurrence of a mixture of several types of inflammation in the lungs. However, there is a lack of authoritative diagnosis, grading criteria and clarified mechanisms of CIP. In this article, we review the incidence and median time to onset of CIP in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer treated with PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in clinical studies. We also summarize the clinical features, potential mechanisms, management and predictive biomarkers of CIP caused by PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in non-small-cell lung cancer treatment.

Increased Expression of T-Box Transcription Factor Protein 21 (TBX21) in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma Predicts Better Prognosis: A Study Based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) Databases

BACKGROUND T-box transcription factor protein 21 (TBX21) is expressed in immune cells and some tumor cells. Defects in TBX21 gene can cause Th1/Th2 imbalance, which is closely related to tumorigenesis. The expression and clinical value of TBX21 in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) are not clear. MATERIAL AND METHODS RNA-Seq expression and clinical information were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) databases. Wilcoxon signed-rank test and logistic regression were used to explore the relationship between TBX21 expression and clinical parameters such as gender, stage, etc. The correlation between clinicopathological characteristics and overall survival of SKCM patients was estimated by Cox regression and the Kaplan-Meier method. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) were conducted to analyze the potential mechanism of TBX21 in the progression of SKCM. RESULTS Compared with normal samples, TBX21 was significantly upregulated in SKCM tissues. SKCM patients with lower TBX21 expression might have a worse prognosis than those with higher TBX21 expression according to Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. Cox analysis also reached the same conclusion: TBX21 was an independent prognostic indicator. GSEA showed that the highly expressed phenotypes in TBX21 were enriched to varying degrees with various signaling pathways. PPI network showed the top 10 proteins that were closely related to TBX21. CONCLUSIONS TBX21 expression was significantly correlated with the prognosis of SKCM patients and was found to be involved in a great many immunological pathways that affect the occurrence and development of tumors.

Expression of Th1- Th2- and Th17-associated cytokines in laryngeal carcinoma

T-helper (Th) 0 cell differentiation into Th1 or Th2 cells is dependent on a number of transcription factors that act at specific time points to regulate gene expression. Th17 cells, a subset of interleukin (IL)-17-producing T cells distinct from Th1 or Th2 cells, are considered to exhibit a critical function in inflammation and autoimmune diseases, as well as cancer development. In the present study, the expression of Th1-, Th2- and Th17-associated cytokines in laryngeal cancer and pericarcinoma tissues obtained from 57 laryngeal carcinoma patients was investigated. The association between Th1, Th2 and Th17 infiltration and tumor development was also evaluated. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting results revealed that the mRNA and protein expression of Th2 cytokines was lower, while the expression of Th1 and Th17 cytokines was higher in tumor tissues than in pericarcinoma tissues. Furthermore, the early stage cancer patients exhibited a higher level of interferon-γ, IL-2 and IL-17 mRNA expression than those at advanced stages. Cancer tissues exhibited higher Th17 cytokine expression than pericarcinoma tissues. By contrast, Th1 cytokine expression was increased in pericarcinoma tissues compared with cancer tissues. These results indicate that high expression of Th1- and Th17-associated cytokines in laryngeal carcinoma may contribute to suppression of cancer development and a relatively good prognosis.

Increased tumor infiltration by mucosal-associated invariant T cells correlates with poor survival in colorectal cancer patients

The infiltration of tumors by lymphocytes is a prognosis factor in colorectal cancer (CRC). The magnitude and quality of this infiltration have emerged as important component of the clinical outcome in these patients. Specifically, markers associated with functional cell-mediated immunity, i.e., a Th1 immune response, are independent markers of better prognosis, whereas Th17-associated components are deleterious and correlate with poorer survival. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are a recently described T cell subset with tissue-homing properties. They display a restricted TCR repertoire specific for widely conserved microbial ligands, and display anti-bacterial properties upon release of Th1-like, Th17-like, and/or cytotoxic granules. MAIT-cell-specific transcripts have been found in kidney and brain cancer, but have not been studies in other sites. In this study, we retrospectively analyzed by confocal microscopy the presence of MAIT cells within colorectal tumors as compared with paired healthy tissues. We observed a significant although variable increase, both in density and in proportion of overall tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes inside the tumors. Importantly, survival curves as well as multivariate analysis showed that patients displaying a higher recruitment of MAIT cells in their tumor, as compared with the neighboring healthy tissue, showed a less favorable clinical outcome. This study suggests that including MAIT-cell-specific markers or transcripts in the analysis of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes could be a benefit to the diagnosis and follow-up of CRC patients.

Expression of T-helper-associated cytokines in the serum of pituitary adenoma patients preoperatively and postperatively

Pituitary adenomas are benign tumors, However, 30% of them may develop into invasive tumors by invading the surrounding tissues. The studies have shown that several cytokines were expressed in human anterior pituitary adenomas, therefore, we speculate that the cytokines are important in human anterior pituitary tumorigenesis. The current study is designed to investigate expression profiles of cytokines in the serum of patients with pituitary adenomas. This was done by selecting 75 cases with pituitary adenoma, including invasive and non-invasive pituitary adenomas and collected blood samples of preoperative, 1 month, 3 months, and 6 months after surgery, respectively. We used the cell flow instrument to detect the level of Lymphocytes and subsets and immunoglobulin and complement in the peripheral blood, and by ELISA detecting the content of cytokines (IL-17, IL-4, IL-5, TNF-α, INF-γ) in the serum of pituitary adenoma patients. The results show that the level of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-17 was increased substantially before surgery but they decreased substantially after surgery, IFN-γ, TNF-a was increased after surgery, the ratio of Th1/Th2 (IFN-γ/IL-4) was significantly lower before surgery and increased distinctly post-operation. These data indicated that there is some cross-regulation among Th1, Th2 and Th17 subsets and that cytokines are important in tissue inflammatory lesions of pituitary adenomas and promoting invasive development.

Acute phase proteins as a tool for differential diagnosis of wasting diseases in growing pigs

The concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp), C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid A (SAA) were measured in wasted pigs, first to evaluate their usefulness in the diagnosis of infectious, wasting diseases in pigs, and second, to evaluate whether their concentrations can distinguish the lymphoid depletion score in the lymph tissues of wasted affected pigs. Fifty-three wasted pigs and seven specific pathogen free (SPF) pigs were postmortem examined. Gross lesions were evaluated and samples for histopathological, immunohistochemical, molecular biology and microbiological analysis were taken. Thirty-one pigs were diagnosed as postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) and 22 as porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). Lymphoid depletion degree in lymph tissues of PMWS and PRDC affected pigs was determined. Serum Hp was significantly higher in pigs with PRDC in comparison with the PMWS affected pigs. Serum CRP concentration was significantly lower in pigs with PRDC than in PMWS affected pigs (P<0.001). CRP and SAA levels increased with the lymphoid depletion score, presenting statistical differences between pigs with no depletion and pigs with low, moderate or severe lymphoid depletion (P<0.05, P<0.05 and P<0.001 for CRP and P<0.01, P<0.01 and P<0.01 for SAA, respectively). Hp was higher in pigs with no or low depletion compared with the pigs suffering severe lymphoid depletion (P<0.001 and P<0.05, respectively).

TIM-3 is expressed on activated human CD4+ T cells and regulates Th1 and Th17 cytokines

TIM-3 is a molecule selectively expressed on a subset of murine IFN-gamma-secreting T helper 1 (Th1) cells but not Th2 cells, and regulates Th1 immunity and tolerance in vivo. At this time little is known about the role of TIM-3 on human T cells. To determine if TIM-3 similarly identifies and regulates Th1 cells in humans, we generated a panel of mAb specific for human TIM-3. We report that TIM-3 is expressed by a subset of activated CD4(+) cells, and that anti-CD3/anti-CD28 stimulation increases both the level of expression as well as the number of TIM-3(+) T cells. We also find that TIM-3 is expressed at high levels on in vitro polarized Th1 cells, and is expressed at lower levels on Th17 cells. In addition, human CD4(+) T cells secreted elevated levels of IFN-gamma, IL-17, IL-2, and IL-6, but not IL-10, IL-4, or TNF-alpha, when stimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 in the presence of TIM-3-specific, putative antagonistic antibodies. This was not mediated by differences in proliferation or cell death, but rather by induction of cytokines at the transcriptional level. These results suggest that TIM-3 is a negative regulator of human T cells and regulates Th1 and Th17 cytokine secretion.

TIM-3 as a therapeutic target in human inflammatory diseases

T-cell immunoglobulin- and mucin-domain-containing molecule-3 (Tim-3) was the first, and is presently the only, surface molecule that can specifically identify T(H)1 cells in both mice and humans. Engagement of Tim-3 by its ligand galectin-9 negatively regulates IFN-gamma secretion and influences the ability to induce T cell tolerance in both mice and man. Numerous studies have demonstrated that Tim-3 influences autoimmune diseases, including diabetes and multiple sclerosis, and its role in other inflammatory diseases including allergies and cancer is beginning to become clear.

Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes and melanoma tumorigenesis: an insight

The presence of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) amid the tumour cells in the stroma and overlying epidermis is a constant feature of melanoma, the deadliest skin cancer. These lymphocytes are mostly cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) that can be propagated in vitro by specific cytokines. Also, they can kill melanoma cells. This specific killing can be abrogated by monoclonal antibodies against CD3, CD8, T-cell receptors (TCRs) and against class I human leucocyte antigens (HLAs). This indicates that these CTLs can recognize the melanoma cells through the TCRs, in an HLA class I-restricted manner. Therefore, these cells and their products both are critical players in T cell-induced melanoma regression and are powerful predictors of survival. This review seeks to examine the characteristics, activation and role of TILs and their associated molecules in melanomas.

IL-3 induces expression of lymphatic markers Prox-1 and podoplanin in human endothelial cells

Factors determining lymphatic differentiation in the adult organism are not yet well characterized. We have made the observation that mixed primary cultures of dermal blood endothelial cells (BEC) and lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) grown under standard conditions change expression of markers during subculture: After passage 6, they uniformly express LEC-specific markers Prox-1 and podoplanin. Using sorted cells, we show that LEC but not BEC constitutively express IL-3, which regulates Prox-1 and podoplanin expression in LEC. The addition of IL-3 to the medium of BEC cultures induces Prox-1 and podoplanin. Blocking IL-3 activity in LEC cultures results in a loss of Prox-1 and podoplanin expression. In conclusion, endogenous IL-3 is required to maintain the LEC phenotype in culture, and the addition of IL-3 to BEC appears to induce transdifferentiation of BEC into LEC.

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Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocyte Secretion of IL-6 Antagonizes Tumor-Derived TGF-β1 and Restores the Lymphokine-Activated Killing Activity

IL-6 is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates cell growth, differentiation, and cell survival. Many tumor cells produce TGF-beta1, which allows them to evade CTL-mediated immune responses. IL-6 antagonizes TGF-beta1 inhibition of CD3 cell activation. However, whether IL-6 restores NK activity, which also is suppressed by TGF-beta1, is not known. We used canine transmissible venereal tumor (CTVT), which produces TGF-beta1, as a model to determine whether IL-6 restores lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) activity. During the progression phase, CTVT cells stop expressing MHC molecules. During the regression phase, the number of surface MHC molecules increases dramatically on about one-third of tumor cells. Tumor cells that stop expressing MHC should be targeted by NK cells. In this study, we found that TGF-beta1 secreted by CTVT cells suppressed LAK cytotoxicity. Interestingly, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) isolated from regressing CTVT secrete high concentrations of IL-6 and antagonize the anti-LAK activity of tumor cell TGF-beta1. TIL also produce IL-6 during progression phase, but the concentration is too low to block the anti-LAK activity of TGF-beta1. There is probably a threshold concentration of IL-6 needed to reverse TGF-beta1-inhibited LAK activity. In addition, in the absence of TGF-beta1, IL-6 derived from TIL does not promote the activity of LAK. This new mechanism, in which TIL manufacture high concentrations of IL-6 to block tumor TGF-beta1 anti-LAK activity, has potential applications in cancer immunotherapy and tumor prognosis.

Origin of anti-tumor immunity failure in mammals and new possibility for immunotherapy

There is now much evidence that tumors can be immunogenic. Tumor cells very often express antigens in a form recognizable by the host immune system, but most frequently without consequences on tumor progression. This has been shown in many experimental models and different experimental conditions. Immediate mechanisms for the escape of tumors from immune response are very similar with mechanisms for the escape of fetoplacental unit (as an allograft) from maternal immune response. Similarity between these two mechanisms is so significant that any randomness is banished. Mechanisms of anti-tumor immunity in mammals are substantially different in comparison with mechanisms of anti-tumor immunity in other classes of vertebrates. Moreover, type of most frequently tumors in non-mammalians vertebrates is also significant different. Incidence of malignant tumors in non-mammalians vertebrates is significantly less than incidence of malignant tumors in mammals. These facts indicate that immune system of mammals during anti-tumor immune response is tricked with similarity between tumor cells and trophoblast or other placental cells. It may be a specific evolutionary approach in rendering of anti-tumor immunity failure in mammals, and new possibility for anti-tumor immunotherapy.

Disease-associated bias in T helper type 1 (Th1)/Th2 CD4(+) T cell responses against MAGE-6 in HLA-DRB10401(+) patients with renal cell carcinoma or melanoma

T helper type 1 (Th1)-type CD4(+) antitumor T cell help appears critical to the induction and maintenance of antitumor cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses in vivo. In contrast, Th2- or Th3/Tr-type CD4(+) T cell responses may subvert Th1-type cell-mediated immunity, providing a microenvironment conducive to disease progression. We have recently identified helper T cell epitopes derived from the MAGE-6 gene product; a tumor-associated antigen expressed by most melanomas and renal cell carcinomas. In this study, we have assessed whether peripheral blood CD4(+) T cells from human histocompatibility leukocyte antigens (HLA)-DRbeta1*0401(+) patients are Th1- or Th2-biased to MAGE-6 epitopes using interferon (IFN)-gamma and interleukin (IL)-5 enzyme-linked immunospot assays, respectively. Strikingly, the vast majority of patients with active disease were highly-skewed toward Th2-type responses against MAGE-6-derived epitopes, regardless of their stage (stage I versus IV) of disease, but retained Th1-type responses against Epstein-Barr virus- or influenza-derived epitopes. In marked contrast, normal donors and cancer patients with no current evidence of disease tended to exhibit either mixed Th1/Th2 or strongly Th1-polarized responses to MAGE-6 peptides, respectively. CD4(+) T cell secretion of IL-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 against MAGE-6 peptides was not observed, suggesting that specific Th3/Tr-type CD4(+) subsets were not common events in these patients. Our data suggest that immunotherapeutic approaches will likely have to overcome or complement systemic Th2-dominated, tumor-reactive CD4(+) T cell responses to provide optimal clinical benefit.

IL-12-induced production of IL-10 and interferon-gamma by mononuclear cells in lung cancer-associated malignant pleural effusions

Interleukin (IL)-12 enhances natural killer (NK) activity and induces interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) production. Recently, it was shown that IL-12 induces IL-10 production by human T cells and NK cells, as a negative feedback for IL-12-induced immune responses. In the present study, in order to investigate the functions of host immune cells existing in contact with cancer cells, we examined the effect of IL-12 on the induction of non-major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-restricted killer activity and of IFN-gamma and IL-10 production by pleural and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (MNC), isolated from 40 lung cancer patients and 20 control subjects. IL-12 induced significant killer activity in pleural MNC from lung cancer patients, as well as those in peripheral blood, against a small cell lung cancer cell line (SBC-3). In lung cancer patients, pleural MNC incubated with IL-12 produced more IFN-gamma than blood MNC. In addition, when stimulated with both IL-12 and IL-2, pleural MNC produced more IL-10 than blood MNC. This is the first study reporting that MNC from pleural effusions of patients with lung cancer can produce both type 1 (IFN-gamma) and type 2 (IL-10) cytokines following exposure to IL-2 and IL-12. These observations suggest that control of IL-10 production at the microenvironment level may be important for the efficacy of human lung cancer immunotherapy with IL-12.

Expression of low-affinity Fc gamma receptor by a human metastatic melanoma line

The class IIa of low-affinity receptors for the Fc region of IgG, Fc gamma RIIa, are expressed on immune cells. The cross-linking of Fc gamma RIIa by complexed IgG triggers activation of protein tyrosine kinase and internalization of immune complexes. In this report, we demonstrate the expression of Fc gamma RIIa by a human melanoma cell line (VIO) derived from a metastasis of a patient with regressive melanoma. The analysis of Fc gamma RIIa functions was performed in VIO cells and Fc gamma RlIa- or Fc gamma RIlb-transfected human melanoma cells (A375). The Fc gamma RIIa cross-linking induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation, including Fc gamma RIIa phosphorylation, and led to its internalization in a clathrin-independent way in human melanoma cells. Moreover, we showed that a part of internalized Fc gamma RIIa migrates in late endosomes, lysosomes and class II-containing compartments. These results suggest that melanoma cells can express functional Fc gamma RII, which might play a role in tumor-host relationships.

Mechanisms of immune dysfunction in stem cell transplantation

High dose therapy (HDT) and stem cell transplantation (SCT) results in alterations in the immunologic network, thymic re-education and the induction of peripheral tolerance. The changes to the immunoregulatory cascade and tolerance induction associated with autotransplants have been investigated in a series of studies focused on leukocyte reconstitution and function following HDT and autologous SCT. In these studies, we observed a significant decrease in the CD4:CD8 T cell ratio post-transplantation compared to normal peripheral blood (PB) donors due to a decrease in CD4+ cells. In addition, T cell function (phytohemagglutinin (PHA) mitogenesis) was consistently depressed compared to samples obtained from normal PB donors. The loss of T cell function was associated with an increased frequency of circulating monocytes, their expression of Fas ligand (FasL) and a high frequency of apoptotic CD4+ T cells. Indeed, 28-51% of circulating CD4+ T cells were observed to be apoptotic during the first 100 days following HDT and SCT. These studies suggest that 'primed' or activated Fas+ CD4+ lymphocytes interact with FasL+ monocytes, resulting in apoptosis, leading to the preferential deletion of CD4+ T cells, a decrease in the CD4:CD8 T cell ratio and depressed T cell function. Further, as discussed herein, the T cells are activated with a predominantly type 2 phenotype, which may also contribute to the maintenance of the immunosuppressive condition. Therefore, there is the potential to regulate immune recovery by stem cell product manipulation or post-transplantation cytokine administration.

Clinical implications of interleukin (IL)-10 induced by non-small-cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

The type 2 cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 has been reported to inhibit the antitumour activity of the regional immunity against various neoplasms. Certain lung cancers produce IL-10, but the clinical significance of IL-10 expression is not well understood.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We examined IL-10 and IL-10 receptor (IL-10R) mRNA expression in 82 non-small-cell lung cancers (NSCLC) by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) were applied to evaluate the cellular localisation and the serum levels of IL-10.

RESULTS

RT-PCR assay revealed IL-10 mRNA expression in 68 (83%) of 82 NSCLC surgical specimens (40 of 50 adenocarcinomas, 22 of 26 squamous cell carcinomas, 5 of 5 large-cell carcinomas, 1 of 1 adenosquamous-cell carcinoma). RT-PCR assay also revealed IL-10R mRNA expression in 79 cases of NSCLC (96.1%). IL-10 expression was confirmed within tumour cells by IHC. EIA showed no significant serum IL-10 elevation in the 12 NSCLC positive for IL-10 mRNA expression (0-2.99 pg/ml). The NSCLC patients with IL-10 production showed significantly poorer prognosis than those without IL-10 production (P < 0.05, Kaplan Meier, log-rank test).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that the cytoplasmic IL-10 correlated to clinical prognosis, and that IL-10 expression is a prognostic factor for NSCLC.

Immune dysfunction despite high levels of immunoregulatory cytokine gene expression in autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplanted non-Hodgkin's lymphoma patients

OBJECTIVE

In the present studies, we examined the role of immunoregulatory cytokine gene expression in immune reconstitution following high-dose chemotherapy and peripheral stem cell transplantation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analyzed the steady-state mRNA cytokine levels and the immune phenotype and function in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells from intermediate-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma patients prior to and following high-dose chemotherapy and peripheral stem cell transplantation.

RESULTS

Significantly higher mRNA levels of both type 1 and type 2 cytokines and monokines were observed in patients undergoing high-dose chemotherapy and peripheral stem cell transplantation as compared with normal healthy individuals. Pretransplant mRNA levels of interleukin-2, -4, -8, -10, interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha were significantly higher than in normal individuals. In addition, on days 30 and 100 following transplantation interleukin-10 levels were significantly increased compared with pretreatment levels. In contrast, the levels of interleukin-2 mRNA and interferon-gamma were decreased significantly on day 365 compared with pretransplant levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The high levels of cytokine mRNA transcripts, both prior to and following peripheral stem cell transplantation, were not due to an increased cellular frequency; rather, they appear to be due to abnormal cellular activation. However, T-cell function is significantly depressed compared with normal donors, which is associated with significantly higher levels of cellular-dependent T cell inhibitory activity and, we suggest herein, high levels of interleukin-10, a type 2 cytokine.

Expression of interleukin-10 in isolated CD8+ T cells and monocytes from growth factor-mobilized peripheral blood stem cell products: a mechanism of immune dysfunction

Previous reports showed the abnormal activation of immune cells in growth factor-mobilized peripheral blood stem cell (PBSC) products, which might be responsible for depressed T cell responsiveness to mitogens compared with normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). In the present study, the mRNA expression levels of interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-10, and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) were significantly higher in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from mobilized PBSC products compared with CD4+ and CD8+ cells from normal peripheral blood (PB). The mRNA expression levels of IL-4 and IL-10 were significantly higher in CD8+ compared with CD4+ cells from PBSC products. However, the expression of IL-2 and IFN-gamma mRNA transcripts was similar in the CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from PBSC products. The levels of IL-10, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha mRNA were also significantly higher in monocytes isolated from PBSC products compared with monocytes isolated from normal PB. Expression of IL-10-specific mRNA in monocytes also was significantly higher than the levels observed in CD8+ cells from PBSC products. We suggest that both CD4+ and CD8+ cells in the PBSC products are highly activated. However, their response to phytohemagglutinin (PHA) mitogenesis is depressed in part because of IL-10 expression by CD8+ cells and monocytes in addition to the higher levels of monocyte-dependent T cell inhibitory activity. These data demonstrate that aberrant IL-10 expression in the CD8+ T cells and monocytes present in PBSC products may represent a possible mechanism of immune dysfunction in patients after high-dose chemotherapy (HDT) and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation (PBSCT).

Dominant infiltration of T(H)1-type CD4+ T cells at the retrobulbar space of patients with thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy

Lymphocyte infiltration in the retrobulbar space is a prominent histological feature of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO). We have characterized phenotypic and functional features of T cells derived from retrobulbar infiltrates of 3 TAO patients to better understand their roles in the disease. One hundred four T-cell clones (TCC) were directly established from cells of retrobulbar tissues using a highly efficient cloning procedure. Phenotypic analysis of TCC showed approximately 70% to 80% were CD3+ CD4+ CD8- T cells, and approximately 20% to 30% were CD3+ CD8+ CD4- T cells. None of the TCC were CD3+ CD4- CD8- T cells. Analysis of the cytokine profile of TCC, as documented by the ability to express interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, and IL-10 demonstrated that the majority of TCC expressed T helper (T(H))1-like profile in both the mRNA and protein levels. A few TCC showed T(H)0-like profile, but no TCC showed T(H)2-like profile. These results suggest that T(H)1-type CD4+ T cells play important roles in the pathogenesis of TAO.

Comparative analysis of interleukin 15 and interleukin 2 for induction of killer activity and of type 2 cytokine production by mononuclear cells from lung cancer patients

Interleukin (IL) 15 is a novel cytokine with IL-2-like activity. In this study, we examined the effect of IL-15 on induction of non major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-restricted killer activity and of type 2 cytokine production by peripheral blood and pleural mononuclear cells (MNCs), from 34 lung cancer patients and 20 control subjects. IL-15 induced significant killer activity in blood MNCs from lung cancer patients as well as control subjects against a small-cell lung cancer cell line (SBC-3). Effective killer induction by IL-15 was observed even in blood MNCs and pleural MNCs from the site of tumour growth in advanced lung cancer patients. IL-12 had an additive effect with a suboptimal dose of IL-15 in induction of killer activity. In the case of MNCs from lung cancer patients, IL-10 production was more prominent when cells were incubated with IL-2 than with IL-15. IL-5 production was observed in MNCs from lung cancer patients stimulated with IL-2, but not with IL-15. These observations suggest that IL-15, by virtue of its lesser induction of type 2 cytokine, may be a better candidate than IL-2 for lung cancer immunotherapy.

Cytotoxic T-cell clone against rectal carcinoma induced by stimulation of a patient's peripheral blood mononuclear cells with autologous cultured tumor cells

In an effort to establish cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTLs) against colorectal carcinoma (CRC) by stimulating patients' lymphocytes with autologous tumor cells, we used peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from a patient with minimal residual rectal carcinoma following removal of the primary lesion and involved regional lymph nodes as a source to generate CTLs in culture. A CTL line and clone were established from the patient's PBMC following stimulation of PBMC with autologous, cultured tumor cells and interleukin-2. The CTL line and the clone consisted predominantly of CD4+ lymphocytes. The CTL clone expressed two T-cell receptor variable alpha chains (V alpha11 and V alpha22) and one beta chain (Vbeta14). The cytokine secretion pattern of the CTL line was of the Th1-type. Both the CTL line and the clone lysed the autologous rectal carcinoma cells, but not the allogeneic, partially human lymphocyte antigen (HLA)-matched or nonmatched CRC cells, autologous Epstein-Barr virus-transformed B cells, K562 (natural killer target) cells or Daudi (lymphokine-activated killer target) cells. Lysis of autologous tumor cells most likely was HLA class I-restricted. Our unique success in generating CTLs against this tumor type may rest in the inclusion of a patient with minimal residual, rather than advanced, disease.

HLA-A locus-restricted and tumor-specific CTLs in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes of patients with non-small cell lung cancer

HLA class I restriction and tumor specificity of cytotoxicity in the IL-2-activated tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from 16 patients with non-small cell lung cancer were investigated. Six HLA class I-restricted and tumor-specific CTL lines were established: (i) HLA A2-restricted and adenocarcinoma-specific CTLs in three (two A0201+ and one A0206+) patients with adenocarcinoma, (ii) HLA A3101- and A3302-restricted and adenocarcinoma-specific CTLs in an HLA A3101/3302+ patient with adenocarcinoma, and (iii) HLA A3302-restricted CTLs and (iv) HLA A2402-restricted CTLs recognizing tumors with different types of histology in an HLA A3302+ patient with adenocarcinoma and an HLA A2402+ patient with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), respectively. The three HLA A2-restricted CTL lines recognized 4, 4, or 6 of 15 HLA A2+ adenocarcinoma cell lines that originated from lung, stomach, colon, and breast with different subtypes (HLA A0201, A0206, and A0207), respectively. Furthermore, the CTLs of an HLA A0206+ patient recognized five different fractions of peptides eluted from an HLA A0201+ adenocarcinoma cell line. These results showed evidence of the existence of HLA class I-restricted and tumor-specific CTLs recognizing peptide antigens on HLA-A alleles of adenocarcinoma or SCC in tumor sites of a substantial number of patients with non-small cell lung cancer.

Interleukin-10 inhibits tumor metastasis through an NK cell-dependent mechanism

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a recently described pleiotropic cytokine secreted mainly by type 2 helper T cells. Previous studies have shown that IL-10 suppresses cytokine expression by natural killer (NK) and type 1 T cells, thus down-regulating cell-mediated immunity and stimulating humoral responses. We here report that injected IL-10 protein is an efficient inhibitor of tumor metastasis in experimental (B16-F10) and spontaneous (M27 and Lox human melanoma) metastasis models in vivo at doses that do not have toxic effects on normal or cancer cells. Histological characterization after IL-10 treatment confirmed the absence of CD8+ and CD4+ T cells and macrophages at the sites of tumor growth, but abundant NK cells were localized at these sites. This unexpected finding was confirmed by showing that IL-10 inhibits most B16-F10 and Lox metastases in mice deficient in T or B cells (SCID and nu/nu mice), but not in those deficient in NK cells (beige mice or NK cell-depleted mice). However, IL-10 downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine production and/or recruitment of additional effector cells may also be involved in the anti-tumor effect at higher local concentrations of IL-10, since transfected B16 tumor cells expressing high amounts of IL-10 were rejected by normal, nu/nu, or SCID mice at the primary tumor stage, and there was still a 33% inhibition of tumor metastasis in beige mice.

Anti-CD3-activated killer T cells: interferon-gamma and interleukin-10 cross-regulate granzyme B expression and the induction of major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted cytotoxicity

We have investigated the effect of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin (IL)-10 on granzyme B expression and the induction of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-unrestricted cytotoxic activity in mouse T cell cultures following activation with anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody (mAb). First, metabolic inhibitors of granule-dependent and granule-independent cytolytic pathways were used to show that anti-CD3-activated killer T (AK-T) cells kill allogeneic P815 mastocytoma target cells primarily by the granule-dependent granzyme/perforin pathway. In comparison to control AK-T cells, lower levels of cytolytic activity were evident when AK-T cells were generated in the presence of anti-IFN-gamma neutralizing mAb or exogenous IL-10, whereas enhanced cytotoxicity was observed when AK-T cell cultures contained anti-IL-10 neutralizing mAb or exogenous IFN-gamma. In addition, granzyme B mRNA expression by AK-T cells was diminished when IFN-gamma bioactivity was neutralized or exogenous IL-10 was present in AK-T cell-cultures, whereas neutralization of IL-10 bioactivity or the addition of exogenous IFN-gamma resulted in increased expression of granzyme B mRNA. Similar results were obtained when granzyme B enzymatic activity in AK-T cell lysates was quantified using a colorimetric granzyme B assay. Altered cytotoxic potential, granzyme B mRNA expression, and granzyme B enzymatic activity following T cell activation in the presence of anti-IFN-gamma or anti-IL-10 neutralizing mAb or exogenous IFN-gamma or IL-10 could not be attributed to gross changes in T cell activation status or to altered percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in AK-T cell cultures. We conclude that IFN-gamma and IL-10 cross-regulate the induction of the granule-dependent cytolytic machinery of AK-T cells.

Reversal of mucosal tolerance by subcutaneous administration of interleukin-12 at the site of attempted sensitization

Oral feeding of proteins causes peripheral T-cell tolerance, as revealed by reduced delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactivity after immunization. This type of tolerance can be due both to passive T-cell anergy and active immunosuppression. Using ovalbumin-fed mice we studied whether putatively immunostimulatory cytokines could break this state of mucosal tolerance. Cytokines were administered locally at the site of attempted sensitization. It was found that neither interleukin-2 (IL-2), interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) nor granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) could restore the response to immunization. In contrast, local administration of IL-12 at the site of attempted immunization resulted in full recovery of DTH reactivity. The dichotomy between the two Th1 stimulatory cytokines IFN-gamma and IL-12 was also reflected by different effects on ovalbumin-specific antibody isotypes. Although both IFN-gamma and IL-12 downregulated serum IgG1-levels in tolerant mice, suggesting decreased ovalbumin-specific Th2 function, only local administration of IL-12 led to increased serum IgG2a levels. These results support the view that potentiation of Th1 effector function is critical for reversal of mucosal tolerance.

Interleukin-10 production in malignant melanoma: preferential detection of IL-10-secreting tumor cells in metastatic lesions

IL-10 mRNA expression and protein production in established melanoma cell lines and freshly cultured primary and metastatic melanoma cells was examined. The in situ distribution of IL-10 in native melanoma tissue was also investigated by immunohistochemistry in primary tumors, metastases, benign melanocytic nevi and normal skin of healthy persons and melanoma patients. IL-10 mRNA, but not IL-10 protein in the culture supernatant, was found in 1 of 4 cultured melanoma cells of primary tumors, while 3 of 6 melanoma-metastasis-derived cultures expressed both IL-10 mRNA and protein. No IL-10 was detected in skin biopsies of healthy volunteers or in the healthy skin of melanoma patients; nor was IL-10 found in congenital melanocytic nevi. In only 1 of the 11 examined primary malignant melanomas was IL-10 immunoreactivity detected within the cytoplasm of cells in the tumor. On the other hand, 4 of 9 metastases clearly displayed scattered IL-1O+ cells. In all sections with IL-10-positive cells, the cells were positive for HMB-45. No co-expression of CD3 and IL-10 was observed. The data suggest that melanoma cells themselves are the main origin of IL-10 in tumor specimens in vivo. The preferential expression of IL-10 in metastatic lesions and in cultured cells from metastases might indicate an increased spreading potential of IL-10-secreting melanoma-cell clones.

Spontaneous production of various cytokines except IL-4 from CD4+ T cells in the affected organs of sarcoidosis patients

We investigated surface antigens and spontaneous cytokine production of T cells from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and aqueous humor (AH) from pulmonary sarcoidosis patients for a better understanding of the role of T cells in granuloma formation. The levels of CD3, CD11b, and CD28 antigen expression on freshly isolated T cells in the BALF of patients were significantly lower than those in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) of either sarcoidosis patients or healthy donors (HD). In contrast, the levels of CD80 (B7/B7-1) and CD86 (B70/B7-2) antigen expression were significantly higher on these T cells and alveolar macrophages in the BALF of patients. Fifty-three T cell clones (TCC) established from the BALF and AH of the three sarcoidosis patients displayed primarily either CD4+ CD11b+ CD28+ or CD4+ CD11b- CD28- phenotypes. Most (61-90%) of these TCC spontaneously produced greater amounts of IL-1 alpha, IL-10, tumour necrosis factor (TNF), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) than did TCC from the PBL from sarcoidosis patients or HD (P < 0.05). Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), IL-6, and IL-2, but not IL-4, were also produced by 40-48% of these TCC. These results suggest that CD4+ T cells of the affected organs of sarcoidosis patients are activated and involved in the immunopathogenesis of sarcoidosis through production of various cytokines.

HLA class II-restricted recognition of common tumor epitopes on human melanoma cells by CD4+ melanoma-infiltrating lymphocytes

CD4+ T cell clones derived from lymphocytes infiltrating four human melanomas specifically recognized melanoma-derived tumor epitopes as shown by secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in vitro upon interaction with autologous melanoma cells, whereas they did not recognize HLA class II-expressing autologous lymphoblasts or HLA class II mismatched allogeneic melanoma cells. Specificity was further established by demonstrating that TNF responses to tumor cells were inhibited by HLA-DR or HLA-DQ monoclonal antibodies. Most of these clones cross-reacted with allogeneic melanoma cells expressing a potentially restricting HLA allele or a structurally similar one. These data show that shared epitopes of human melanoma cells presented on HLA class II molecules are frequently recognized by autologous CD4+ T lymphocytes.

Analysis of cytokine secretion by melanoma-specific CD4+ T lymphocytes

Although specific antitumor immune reactivity has been documented extensively in CD8+ T cells derived from melanoma patients, relatively little is known about CD4+ T cell responses against melanoma. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) cultured from metastatic lesions in five patients yielded cytolytic CD8+ T cells with specific activity against autologous and MHC class I-compatible allogeneic melanoma targets. In four of the five cases studied, CD4+ T cells purified from bulk TIL cultures also reacted specifically with autologous melanoma cells, as manifested by the secretion of various cytokines (GM-CSF, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma) after a 24 h cocultivation. Cytokine secretion by CD4+ T cells was MHC class II restricted, and proved to be a more reliable indicator of the immunologic reactivity of CD4+ T cells than cytolysis. Three of the four reactive CD4+ TIL failed to recognize allogeneic melanomas, suggesting recognition of Ag with limited expression in the patient population. Cloning such Ags may provide clues to optimizing current antitumor immunization strategies.