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Appiani FJ, Caroff SN. The cyclical revival of psychedelics in psychiatric treatment. Curr Med Res Opin 2024:1-8. [PMID: 38880945 DOI: 10.1080/03007995.2024.2368725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
There is an increasing demand for effective treatments for depression, particularly for individuals grappling with treatment-resistant depression. Over recent years, a surge of interest has focused on exploring the safety and efficacy of psilocybin as a potential treatment for depression. However, preliminary findings from phase 2 studies have been inconclusive, prompting critical examination of issues such as maintaining blinding and the role of adjunctive psychotherapy. The maintenance of double-blinding and the role of adjunctive psychotherapy introduce biases that complicate the attainment of conclusive results in clinical research. Examining historical data reveals a recurrent pattern linked to the use of psychoactive substances, which starts with an excess of optimism and ends with general addictive behaviors and a heightened risk of serious public health problems. Considering these findings, a cautious and measured approach is imperative, given that the efficacy and safety of psilocybin treatment have yet to be unequivocally established. The potential for excessive optimism among researchers is a notable concern, as unwarranted enthusiasm may inadvertently facilitate the widespread adoption of this treatment without sufficient empirical support. In navigating the complexities of depression treatment, it is necessary to strike a balance between innovation and prudence to ensure evidence-based advancement of therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Appiani
- Bioethics Committee, Hospital de Clínicas José de San Martín, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Stanley N Caroff
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Corporal Michael J Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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2
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Castillo-Toledo C, Fraile-Martínez O, Donat-Vargas C, Lara-Abelenda FJ, Ortega MA, Garcia-Montero C, Mora F, Alvarez-Mon M, Quintero J, Alvarez-Mon MA. Insights from the Twittersphere: a cross-sectional study of public perceptions, usage patterns, and geographical differences of tweets discussing cocaine. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1282026. [PMID: 38566955 PMCID: PMC10986306 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1282026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cocaine abuse represents a major public health concern. The social perception of cocaine has been changing over the decades, a phenomenon closely tied to its patterns of use and abuse. Twitter is a valuable tool to understand the status of drug use and abuse globally. However, no specific studies discussing cocaine have been conducted on this platform. Methods 111,508 English and Spanish tweets containing "cocaine" from 2018 to 2022 were analyzed. 550 were manually studied, and the largest subset underwent automated classification. Then, tweets related to cocaine were analyzed to examine their content, types of Twitter users, usage patterns, health effects, and personal experiences. Geolocation data was also considered to understand regional differences. Results A total of 71,844 classifiable tweets were obtained. Among these, 15.95% of users discussed the harm of cocaine consumption to health. Media outlets had the highest number of tweets (35.11%) and the most frequent theme was social/political denunciation (67.88%). Regarding the experience related to consumption, there are more tweets with a negative sentiment. The 9.03% of tweets explicitly mention frequent use of the drug. The continent with the highest number of tweets was America (55.44% of the total). Discussion The findings underscore the significance of cocaine as a current social and political issue, with a predominant focus on political and social denunciation in the majority of tweets. Notably, the study reveals a concentration of tweets from the United States and South American countries, reflecting the high prevalence of cocaine-related disorders and overdose cases in these regions. Alarmingly, the study highlights the trivialization of cocaine consumption on Twitter, accompanied by a misleading promotion of its health benefits, emphasizing the urgent need for targeted interventions and antidrug content on social media platforms. Finally, the unexpected advocacy for cocaine by healthcare professionals raises concerns about potential drug abuse within this demographic, warranting further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Consuelo Castillo-Toledo
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
| | - Oscar Fraile-Martínez
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolina Donat-Vargas
- Cardiovascular and Nutritional Epidemiology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- IMDEA-Food Institute, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
| | - F. J. Lara-Abelenda
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
- Departamento Teoria de la Señal y Comunicaciones y Sistemas Telemáticos y Computación, Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieria de Telecomunicación, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Fuenlabrada, Spain
| | - Miguel Angel Ortega
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cielo Garcia-Montero
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Mora
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Legal Medicine and Psychiatry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Melchor Alvarez-Mon
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
- Service of Internal Medicine and Immune System Diseases-Rheumatology, University Hospital Príncipe de Asturias, (CIBEREHD), Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Javier Quintero
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Legal Medicine and Psychiatry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Angel Alvarez-Mon
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
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Arbouche N, de Lestrange A, Raul JS, Kintz P. Mariani wine: What's really in it? Analysis of the most popular tonic drink of the 19th century after 100 years of storage. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 238:115804. [PMID: 37866081 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
During the Belle Epoque, the use of cocaine, well known to the South American populations, spread among the European elite in the form of a tonic drink created from coca leaves macerated in Bordeaux wine, the Mariani wine. Nowadays, bottles in circulation are extremely rare but the investigations of a Parisian historian led him to the discovery of a bottle of wine that belonged to Angelo Mariani's estate at the end of the 19th century. Our laboratory was asked to analyse the contents of the bottle in order to search for the main active compounds and to estimate the state of preservation. The analysis of the centenarian product collected was aimed at identifying the alcohols and solvents by HS-GC/FID and HS-GC/MS after dilution in water, and the main alkaloids contained in all the samples by LC-HRMS screening and LC-MS/MS quantification. The Mariani wine presented an alcohol content of 15.7°. The screening and the subsequent dosage revealed the following substances: cocaine (86 ng/mL), benzoylecgonine (383 ng/mL), cocaethylene (17 ng/mL), ecgonine methyl ester (130 ng/mL), caffeine, cuscohygrine, cinnamoylcocaine and synephrine. The alkaloids found in the Mariani wine confirm the real presence of coca leaves in this drink. Their low concentrations may indicate drug instability. The presence of cocaethylene demonstrates that it can be formed without passing through the liver, which was supposed to be the site of production when cocaine and ethanol are present in the body at the same time. These appear to be the first report in the literature presenting the analysis of Mariani wine with the dosage of cocaine derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pascal Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, Strasbourg, France; X-Pertise Consulting, Mittelhausbergen, France
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Gangu K, Bobba A, Basida SD, Avula S, Chela H, Singh S. Trends of Cocaine Use and Manifestations in Hospitalized Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study. Cureus 2022; 14:e22090. [PMID: 35165645 PMCID: PMC8830384 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.22090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective About 41 million people aged ≥18 years reported lifetime use of cocaine, and 5.4 million people reported having used cocaine in 2019. We aim to identify trends of cocaine use, manifestations, concomitant drug use, and financial burden on health care among hospitalized patients. Methods We utilized National Inpatient Sample from years 2006-2018. Patients with age ≥18 years, admitted to the hospital with a diagnosis of cocaine abuse, dependence, poisoning, or unspecified cocaine use were included in the study. We used ICD-9 Clinical Modification (CM) and ICD-10-CM codes to retrieve patient samples and comorbid conditions. The primary outcome was the trend in cocaine use among hospitalized patients from the year 2006 to 2018. Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test was used to assess the significance of trends. Results In the year 2006, the prevalence of cocaine abuse among hospitalized patients was 10,751 per million with an initial decline to 7,451 per million in 2012 and a subsequent increase to 11,891 per million hospitalized patients in 2018 with p =0.01. The majority of patients admitted were older than 50 years (43.27%), and a greater percentage of patients were males. All ethnicities showed a rising trend in the use of cocaine except for Native Americans. Cardiovascular effects, neuropsychiatric and infectious manifestations in hospitalized patients with cocaine abuse showed a consistent increase from year 2006 to 2018 with p <0.001. Conclusions There is a recent uptrend in cocaine use among hospital admissions in the US from 2006 to 2018 with an increased rate of systemic manifestations. This highlights the impact of cocaine use on the health system and the dire need to address this growing problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthik Gangu
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA
| | - Aniesh Bobba
- Department of Internal Medicine, John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County, Ohio, USA
| | - Sanket D Basida
- Graduate Student, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay Medical College, Rajkot, IND
| | - Sindhu Avula
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas, USA
| | - Harleen Chela
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA
| | - Simranjit Singh
- Internal Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, USA
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Hersey M, Bacon AK, Bailey LG, Coggiano MA, Newman AH, Leggio L, Tanda G. Psychostimulant Use Disorder, an Unmet Therapeutic Goal: Can Modafinil Narrow the Gap? Front Neurosci 2021; 15:656475. [PMID: 34121988 PMCID: PMC8187604 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.656475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of individuals affected by psychostimulant use disorder (PSUD) has increased rapidly over the last few decades resulting in economic, emotional, and physical burdens on our society. Further compounding this issue is the current lack of clinically approved medications to treat this disorder. The dopamine transporter (DAT) is a common target of psychostimulant actions related to their use and dependence, and the recent availability of atypical DAT inhibitors as a potential therapeutic option has garnered popularity in this research field. Modafinil (MOD), which is approved for clinical use for the treatment of narcolepsy and sleep disorders, blocks DAT just like commonly abused psychostimulants. However, preclinical and clinical studies have shown that it lacks the addictive properties (in both behavioral and neurochemical studies) associated with other abused DAT inhibitors. Clinical availability of MOD has facilitated its off-label use for several psychiatric disorders related to alteration of brain dopamine (DA) systems, including PSUD. In this review, we highlight clinical and preclinical research on MOD and its R-enantiomer, R-MOD, as potential medications for PSUD. Given the complexity of PSUD, we have also reported the effects of MOD on psychostimulant-induced appearance of several symptoms that could intensify the severity of the disease (i.e., sleep disorders and impairment of cognitive functions), besides the potential therapeutic effects of MOD on PSUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melinda Hersey
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Amanda K. Bacon
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Lydia G. Bailey
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Mark A. Coggiano
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Amy H. Newman
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Lorenzo Leggio
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Clinical Psychoneuroendo- crinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Gianluigi Tanda
- Medication Development Program, Molecular Targets and Medication Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Chambers SA, DeSousa JM, Huseman ED, Townsend SD. The DARK Side of Total Synthesis: Strategies and Tactics in Psychoactive Drug Production. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2307-2330. [PMID: 29342356 PMCID: PMC6205722 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Humankind has used and abused psychoactive drugs for millennia. Formally, a psychoactive drug is any agent that alters cognition and mood. The term "psychotropic drug" is neutral and describes the entire class of substrates, licit and illicit, of interest to governmental drug policy. While these drugs are prescribed for issues ranging from pain management to anxiety, they are also used recreationally. In fact, the current opioid epidemic is the deadliest drug crisis in American history. While the topic is highly politicized with racial, gender, and socioeconomic elements, there is no denying the toll drug mis- and overuse is taking on this country. Overdose, fueled by opioids, is the leading cause of death for Americans under 50 years of age, killing ca. 64,000 people in 2016. From a chemistry standpoint, the question is in what ways, if any, did organic chemists contribute to this problem? In this targeted review, we provide brief historical accounts of the main classes of psychoactive drugs and discuss several foundational total syntheses that ultimately provide the groundwork for producing these molecules in academic, industrial, and clandestine settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Schuyler A. Chambers
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Jenna M. DeSousa
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Eric D. Huseman
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Steven D. Townsend
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, 7330 Stevenson Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, 896 Preston Research Building, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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Mishra P, Banga I, Tyagi R, Munjal T, Goel A, Capalash N, Sharma P, Suri CR, Gandhi S. An immunochromatographic dipstick as an alternate for monitoring of heroin metabolites in urine samples. RSC Adv 2018; 8:23163-23170. [PMID: 35540121 PMCID: PMC9081577 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra02018c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathway of heroin degradation post oral administration in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Mishra
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB)
- Amity University
- Noida-201313
- India
- Amity Institute of Neuropsychology and Neurosciences (AINN)
| | - Ivneet Banga
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB)
- Amity University
- Noida-201313
- India
| | - Roshika Tyagi
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB)
- Amity University
- Noida-201313
- India
| | - Tanya Munjal
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB)
- Amity University
- Noida-201313
- India
| | - Aditya Goel
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB)
- Amity University
- Noida-201313
- India
| | - Neena Capalash
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology
- Panjab University
- Chandigarh-160014
- India
| | - Prince Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology
- Panjab University
- Chandigarh-160014
- India
| | - C. R. Suri
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology
- Chandigarh-160036
- India
| | - Sonu Gandhi
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB)
- Amity University
- Noida-201313
- India
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology
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Singh S, Mishra P, Banga I, S Parmar A, Prakash Tripathi P, Gandhi S. Chemiluminescence based immunoassay for the detection of heroin and its metabolites. BIOIMPACTS : BI 2017; 8:53-58. [PMID: 29713602 PMCID: PMC5915709 DOI: 10.15171/bi.2018.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Continuous use of opiates causes drug-related illnesses, which poses an alarming situation to develop sensitive detection platform. In this study, a highly sensitive and reliable chemiluminescence immunoassay (CI) has been developed for the detection of heroin and its major metabolites in spiked urine samples. Methods: To develop robust immunoassay, monoacetyl morphine-bovine serum albumin (MAM-BSA) conjugate was synthesized and characterized thoroughly by physicochemical techniques. The anti-MAM antibodies were developed, labeled with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and immunoassay was developed to detect the presence of target drug in spiked urine samples. Results: A competitive CI was developed, where heroin, MAM, morphine, and codeine concentration were ranged from 0-1000 ng/ mL in spiked urine samples and limit of detection were 80, 95, 90, 75 pg/ mL. Conclusion: The developed CI is highly sensitive, specific, point of care, cost-effective and can be used as a routine technique for quantitative analysis for screening of narcotic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smritee Singh
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Sector-125, Noida-201313, India
| | - Priya Mishra
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Sector-125, Noida-201313, India
- Amity Institute of Neurophyscology and Neurosciences, Amity University, Sector-125, Noida-201313, India
| | - Ivneet Banga
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Sector-125, Noida-201313, India
| | - Avanish S Parmar
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology-BHU, Varanasi-221005, India
| | - Prem Prakash Tripathi
- CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Jadavpur, Kolkata, West Bengal-700032, India
| | - Sonu Gandhi
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Sector-125, Noida-201313, India
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Morgan PT. Ketamine and Sleep: Bridging the Gap in the Treatment of Depressive Illness. Biol Psychiatry 2017; 82:309-311. [PMID: 28781004 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter T Morgan
- Department of Psychiatry, Lawrence and Memorial Healthcare, New London; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
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Visalli T, Turkall R, Abdel-Rahman MS. Cocaine Hepatotoxicity and Its Potentiation by Lipopolysaccharide: Treatment and Gender Effects. Int J Toxicol 2016; 23:163-70. [PMID: 15204719 DOI: 10.1080/10915810490471334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of a 7-day treatment as well as the influence of gender on cocaine hepatotoxicity (CH). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) potentiation of CH was also investigated. Male and female CF-1 mice were orally administered 20 mg/kg body weight cocaine hydrochloride once daily for 7 days. Four hours after the last cocaine administration, the mice were administered 12 × 106 EU LPS (or equal volume of sterile saline) intraperitoneally. Plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were evaluated as indices of liver injury. Blood and liver glutathione (GSH), glutathione reductase (GRx), and catalase (CAT) activities were also determined to investigate the oxidation stress induced by the treatment. Plasma ALT and AST concentrations were elevated in all males receiving cocaine alone or cocaine + LPS. Furthermore, blood GSH and CAT were decreased and GRx activity was elevated in the same males. Histological analysis revealed a high degree of focal necrosis in the male cocaine group, and severe necrosis in the male cocaine + LPS group. Unlike males, females showed no effect of either cocaine alone or cocaine + LPS treatments. These results indicate that gender plays a significant role in CH and its potentiation by LPS and lengthening the administration by two treatments increased the severity of cocaine + LPS hepatotoxicity dramatically in male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Visalli
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, New Jersey Medical School, University of Medicine, and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey 07103-2714, USA
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Lipton JW, Mangan KP, Silvestri JM. Acute Cocaine Toxicity: Pharmacology and Clinical Presentations in Adult and Pediatric Populations. J Pharm Pract 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/089719000001300207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine remains the most prevalent drug responsible for emergency department (ED) visits. A majority of acute cocaine toxicity cases involve young, habitual, adult cocaine users and often present with a range of cardiac, neurologic, gastrointestinal (GI) or renal symptoms. In addition, atypical populations (neonates, infants, toddlers, young children and adolescents) are presenting in EDs with varying symptoms that are unknowingly associated with cocaine exposure. Unfortunately, juvenile presentations are generally anecdotal in nature, and while enlightening, are difficult to quantify epidemiologically. Outlining the types of symptom presentation in these young populations may assist healthcare providers in expediting proper treatment for such demographic groups. Therefore, this review examines the current knowledge regarding cocaine's pharmacologic activity as it relates to its potential toxicity, and outlines the clinical manifestations of cocaine exposure and toxicity in adult and pediatric populations. We conclude from the available clinical reports that there must be a higher index of suspicion in the pediatric population to identify exposed infants and children. Improved recognition and identification in both typical and atypical populations will result in better characterization of acute cocaine toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack W. Lipton
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, Rush University and Rush Chaldren's Hospital, Rush-Presbyterian St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Kile P. Mangan
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, Rush University and Rush Chaldren's Hospital, Rush-Presbyterian St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Jean M. Silvestri
- Department of Pediatrics, Rush University and Rush Chaldren's Hospital, Rush-Presbyterian St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612
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13
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Panlilio LV, Justinova Z, Goldberg SR. Animal models of cannabinoid reward. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:499-510. [PMID: 20590560 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The endogenous cannabinoid system is involved in numerous physiological and neuropsychological functions. Medications that target this system hold promise for the treatment of a wide variety of disorders. However, as reward is one of the most prominent of these functions, medications that activate this system must be evaluated for abuse potential. Meanwhile, cannabis is already being used chronically by millions of people, many of whom eventually seek treatment for cannabis dependence. Therefore, there is a need for procedures that can be used to: (i) better understand the mechanisms of cannabinoid reward; (ii) evaluate the abuse potential of new medications; and (iii) evaluate the effectiveness of medications developed for treating cannabis dependence. Animal models of cannabinoid reward provide a means of accomplishing these goals. In this review, we briefly describe and evaluate these models, their advantages and their shortcomings. Special emphasis is placed on intravenous cannabinoid self-administration in squirrel monkeys, a valid, reliable and flexible model that we have developed over the past decade. Although the conditions under which cannabinoid drugs have rewarding effects may be more restricted than with other drugs of abuse such as cocaine and heroin, work with these models indicates that cannabinoid reward involves similar brain mechanisms and produces the same kinds of reward-related behaviour. By continuing to use these animal models as tools in the development of new medications, it should be possible to take advantage of the potential benefits provided by the endocannabinoid system while minimizing its potential for harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh V Panlilio
- Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Risk behaviors for HCV- and HIV-seroprevalence among female crack users in Porto Alegre, Brazil. Arch Womens Ment Health 2010; 13:185-91. [PMID: 19760050 DOI: 10.1007/s00737-009-0089-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2008] [Accepted: 06/22/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have shown a high prevalence of HIV-seropositive status among crack users, though most refer to North American populations. Few studies evaluate HCV prevalence among female crack users. In addition, there is a particular lack of data about risk behaviors and HIV/HCV prevalence in this population around the world. In order to ascertain the HIV/HCV serostatus and associated risk behaviors for infection of female crack users of Porto Alegre, Brazil. A cross-sectional study of a convenience sample of 73 current female crack users was conducted. Subjects answered NIDA's Risk Behavior Assessment and an AIDS Information Questionnaire. In addition, blood was collected from subjects for HIV/HCV tests. The overall prevalence of HIV was 37.0%; HCV seroprevalence was 27.7%; of 15.1% the sample was co-infected with HIV and HCV. Four years of schooling or fewer (OR 4.72-CI 95%; 1.49-14.99) and having three or more HIV tests in one's lifetime (OR 4.26-CI 95% (1.29-14.04)) were associated with HIV infection (after multivariate logistic regression). The single greatest risk factor for HCV infection was having 4 years of schooling or fewer (OR 4.51-CI 95%; 1.18-17.27). We found a very high prevalence of HIV and HCV infection among female crack users, and low education was the most significant risk factor associated with both infections.
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Schmitt KC, Reith MEA. Regulation of the dopamine transporter: aspects relevant to psychostimulant drugs of abuse. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1187:316-40. [PMID: 20201860 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05148.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Dopaminergic signaling in the brain is primarily modulated by dopamine transporters (DATs), which actively translocate extraneuronal dopamine back into dopaminergic neurons. Transporter proteins are highly dynamic, continuously trafficking between plasmalemmal and endosomal membranes. Changes in DAT membrane trafficking kinetics can rapidly regulate dopaminergic tone by altering the number of transporters present at the cell surface. Various psychostimulant DAT ligands-acting either as amphetamine-like substrates or cocaine-like nontranslocated inhibitors-affect transporter trafficking, triggering rapid insertion or removal of plasmalemmal DATs. In this review, we focus on the effects of psychostimulants of addiction (particularly D-methamphetamine and cocaine) on DAT regulation and membrane trafficking, with an emphasis on how these drugs may influence intracellular signaling cascades and transporter-associated scaffolding proteins to affect DAT regulation. In addition, we consider involvement of presynaptic receptors for dopamine and other ligands in DAT regulation. Finally, we discuss possible implications of transporter regulation to the putative toxicity of several substituted amphetamine derivatives commonly used as recreational drugs, as well as to the design of therapeutics for cocaine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle C Schmitt
- Department of Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA
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16
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Gandhi S, Caplash N, Sharma P, Raman Suri C. Strip-based immunochromatographic assay using specific egg yolk antibodies for rapid detection of morphine in urine samples. Biosens Bioelectron 2009; 25:502-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2009.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2009] [Revised: 07/09/2009] [Accepted: 07/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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17
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Hoop JG, Spellecy R. Philosophical and ethical issues at the forefront of neuroscience and genetics: an overview for psychiatrists. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2009; 32:437-49. [PMID: 19486824 DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This review has touched upon some of the major ethical issues surrounding emerging technologies in neuroscience and genetics. Although at first glance these issues may seem somewhat peripheral to the clinical practice of psychiatry, we suggest that they may have unanticipated effects upon the care of patients with mental illness. Certainly, the philosophical issues surrounding free will are of tremendous consequence to persons who commit crimes while suffering severe symptoms of mental illness. In addition, the opening up of a lucrative new "enhancement" market for the sale of new therapies could divert commercial resources away from the development of therapies for mental illness, although it is also possible that some enhancements will have secondary benefits as treatments for disease. Social acceptance of enhancement therapies could have a beneficial, normalizing effect on public attitudes toward those who receive mental health treatment. On the other hand, a moral backlash against enhancements as "quick fixes" that deprive individuals of authenticity could have a secondary effect of increasing the stigma of mental health treatment. For all of these reasons, it has become increasingly important for psychiatrists to be informed about and active participants in the public conversation about neuroethics. Psychiatric patients appear to have much at stake in these ethical debates, and psychiatrists have valuable expertise to offer as professionals with intimate knowledge of the human mind, its limitations, and its potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinger G Hoop
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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18
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Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH. Dual dopamine/serotonin releasers: potential treatment agents for stimulant addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2008; 16:458-74. [PMID: 19086767 PMCID: PMC2683464 DOI: 10.1037/a0014103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
"Agonist therapy" for cocaine and methamphetamine addiction involves administration of stimulant-like medications (e.g., monoamine releasers) to reduce withdrawal symptoms and prevent relapse. A significant problem with this strategy is that many candidate medications possess abuse liability because of activation of mesolimbic dopamine (DA) neurons in the brain. One way to reduce DA-mediated abuse liability of candidate drugs is to add in serotonin (5-HT) releasing properties, since substantial evidence shows that 5-HT neurons provide an inhibitory influence over mesolimbic DA neurons. This article addresses several key issues related to the development of dual DA/5-HT releasers for the treatment of substance use disorders. First, the authors briefly summarize the evidence supporting a dual deficit in DA and 5-HT function during withdrawal from chronic cocaine or alcohol abuse. Second, the authors discuss data demonstrating that 5HT release can dampen DA-mediated stimulant effects, and the "antistimulant" role of 5-HT-sub(2C) receptors is considered. Next, the mechanisms underlying potential adverse effects of 5-HT releasers are described. Finally, the authors discuss recently published data with PAL-287, a novel nonamphetamine DA/5-HT releasing agent that suppresses cocaine self-administration but lacks positive reinforcing properties. It is concluded that DA/5-HT releasers could be useful therapeutic adjuncts for the treatment of cocaine and alcohol addictions, as well as for obesity, attention-deficit disorder, and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Rothman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, IRP/NIDA/NIH, Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, Suite 4500, Triad Building, 333 Cassell Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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19
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Teller C, Halámek J, Žeravík J, Stöcklein WF, Scheller FW. Development of a bifunctional sensor using haptenized acetylcholinesterase and application for the detection of cocaine and organophosphates. Biosens Bioelectron 2008; 24:111-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2008.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2007] [Revised: 02/23/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Group-selective antibodies based fluorescence immunoassay for monitoring opiate drugs. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 392:215-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-2256-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2008] [Revised: 06/14/2008] [Accepted: 06/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Knapska E, Radwanska K, Werka T, Kaczmarek L. Functional internal complexity of amygdala: focus on gene activity mapping after behavioral training and drugs of abuse. Physiol Rev 2007; 87:1113-73. [PMID: 17928582 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00037.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The amygdala is a heterogeneous brain structure implicated in processing of emotions and storing the emotional aspects of memories. Gene activity markers such as c-Fos have been shown to reflect both neuronal activation and neuronal plasticity. Herein, we analyze the expression patterns of gene activity markers in the amygdala in response to either behavioral training or treatment with drugs of abuse and then we confront the results with data on other approaches to internal complexity of the amygdala. c-Fos has been the most often studied in the amygdala, showing specific expression patterns in response to various treatments, most probably reflecting functional specializations among amygdala subdivisions. In the basolateral amygdala, c-Fos expression appears to be consistent with the proposed role of this nucleus in a plasticity of the current stimulus-value associations. Within the medial part of the central amygdala, c-Fos correlates with acquisition of alimentary/gustatory behaviors. On the other hand, in the lateral subdivision of the central amygdala, c-Fos expression relates to attention and vigilance. In the medial amygdala, c-Fos appears to be evoked by emotional novelty of the experimental situation. The data on the other major subdivisions of the amygdala are scarce. In conclusion, the studies on the gene activity markers, confronted with other approaches involving neuroanatomy, physiology, and the lesion method, have revealed novel aspects of the amygdala, especially pointing to functional heterogeneity of this brain region that does not fit very well into contemporarily active debate on serial versus parallel information processing within the amygdala.
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Abstract
Stroke is the third most common cause of death in developed countries. In England and Wales, 1000 people under the age of 30 have a stroke each year. Cocaine is the most commonly used class A drug, and the first report of cocaine-induced stroke was in 1977. Since the development of alkaloidal "crack" cocaine in the 1980s, there has been a significant rise in the number of case reports describing both ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke associated with cocaine use. Cocaine is a potent central nervous system stimulant, and acts by binding to specific receptors at pre-synaptic sites preventing the reuptake of neurotransmitters. The exact mechanism of cocaine-induced stroke remains unclear and there are likely to be a number of factors involved including vasospasm, cerebral vasculitis, enhanced platelet aggregation, cardioembolism, and hypertensive surges associated with altered cerebral autoregulation. The evidence surrounding each of these factors will be considered here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean D Treadwell
- Department of Integrated Medicine, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, UK.
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23
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Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH. Dual dopamine/serotonin releasers as potential medications for stimulant and alcohol addictions. AAPS JOURNAL 2007; 9:E1-10. [PMID: 17408232 PMCID: PMC2751297 DOI: 10.1208/aapsj0901001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We have advocated the idea of agonist therapy for treating cocaine addiction. This strategy involves administration of stimulant-like medications (eg, monoamine releasers) to alleviate withdrawal symptoms and prevent relapse. A major limitation of this approach is that many candidate medicines possess significant abuse potential because of activation of mesolimbic dopamine (DA) neurons in central nervous system reward circuits. Previous data suggest that serotonin (5-HT) neurons can provide an inhibitory influence over mesolimbic DA neurons. Thus, it might be predicted that the balance between DA and 5-HT transmission is important to consider when developing medications with reduced stimulant side effects. In this article, we discuss several issues related to the development of dual DA/5-HT releasers for the treatment of substance use disorders. First, we discuss evidence supporting the existence of a dual deficit in DA and 5-HT function during withdrawal from chronic cocaine or alcohol abuse. Then we summarize studies that have tested the hypothesis that 5-HT neurons can dampen the effects mediated by mesolimbic DA. For example, it has been shown that pharmacological manipulations that increase extracellular 5-HT attenuate stimulant effects produced by DA release, such as locomotor stimulation and self-administration behavior. Finally, we discuss our recently published data about PAL-287 (naphthylisopropylamine), a novel non-amphetamine DA-/5-HT-releasing agent that suppresses cocaine self-administration but lacks positive reinforcing properties. It is concluded that DA/5-HT releasers might be useful therapeutic adjuncts for the treatment of cocaine and alcohol addiction, obesity, and even attention deficit disorder and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Rothman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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24
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Fajemirokun-Odudeyi O, Lindow SW. Obstetric implications of cocaine use in pregnancy: a literature review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004; 112:2-8. [PMID: 14687731 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2003.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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25
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Ferreira Filho OF, Turchi MD, Laranjeira R, Castelo A. [Epidemiological profile of cocaine users on treatment in psychiatrics hospitals, Brazil]. Rev Saude Publica 2003; 37:751-9. [PMID: 14666305 DOI: 10.1590/s0034-89102003000600010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the epidemiological profile and patterns of cocaine use among hospitalized drug users. METHODS A cross-sectional study was carried out among drug users, aged 18 years or more, hospitalized in one out six selected psychiatric hospitals in the metropolitan area of Greater S o Paulo, whose clinical conditions allowed them to reliably answer to a standardized questionnaire and who agreed to participate. Six psychiatric hospitals who attended spontaneously referred public and private patients from all Greater S o Paulo were selected. Data collection was conducted using structured interviews, individually applied by a trained psychologist. Statistical analysis was performed using Student t-test and Chi-square test at p<0.05. RESULTS There was a predominance of crack use (38.4%) over intravenous drug use (1.6%). Addicts who smoked cocaine had lower education, most were unemployed and had previously lived on the streets, and used higher amounts of drugs. These addicts also had been previously incarcerated more often than addicts who used other routes for drug administration. CONCLUSIONS Drug use is a serious public health problem in Greater S o Paulo, and this is shown by the great amount of hospital admissions due to drug addiction. Crack users have lower socioeconomic status and more often engage in violence and crimes.
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26
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Abstract
Most psychostimulants interact with monoamine transport proteins. This paper reviews work our laboratory has conducted to investigate the interaction of psychostimulants with monoamine transporters in order to advance our understanding of how these drugs affect the brain. We review two topics: (1) characterization of multiple binding sites for cocaine-like drugs and (2) an examination of the mechanisms of action of amphetamine-type anorectic agents. We conclude that the brain contains high abundance nonclassical binding sites for cocaine-like drugs that have micromolar affinity for cocaine and that none of the clinically available amphetamine-type appetite suppressants are equipotent substrates for dopamine transporter (DAT) and serotonin transporter (SERT) proteins. Future medications discovery efforts should focus on identifying new compounds which possess the equipotent substrate activity at DAT and SERT, but which lack the adverse effects of stimulants developed decades ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Rothman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, PO Box 5180, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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27
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Fandrick K, Feng X, Janowsky A, Johnson R, Cashman JR. Bivalent biogenic amine reuptake inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2003; 13:2151-4. [PMID: 12798324 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(03)00386-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A series of aryltropane-based bivalent ligands was prepared and investigated for binding potency and for their ability to inhibit reuptake of human dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine transporters. The bivalent ligand 4, comprised of linking an aryltropane by an octamethylene spacer showed high efficacy for the human dopamine transporter and had a discrimination ratio of 130.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Fandrick
- Human BioMolecular Research Institute, 5310 Eastgate Mall, 92121, San Diego, CA, USA
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28
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Frishman WH, Del Vecchio A, Sanal S, Ismail A. Cardiovascular manifestations of substance abuse part 1: cocaine. HEART DISEASE (HAGERSTOWN, MD.) 2003; 5:187-201. [PMID: 12783633 DOI: 10.1097/01.hdx.0000074519.43281.fa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Substance abuse with cocaine is associated with multiple cardiovascular conditions, including myocardial infarction, dissection, left ventricular hypertrophy, arrhythmias, sudden death, and cardiomyopathy. Cocaine has effects to potentiate the physiologic actions of catecholamines and has direct effects on voltage-dependent sodium ion channels related to local anesthetic properties. The effects of cocaine can be augmented with concomitant alcohol consumption. Acute myocardial ischemia caused by cocaine may be related to in situ thromboisis and/or coronary vasospasm. Treatment strategies for cocaine-induced myocardial infarction would include antiplatelet therapy, thrombolysis, and vasodilators (eg, nitrates, nifedipine). Beta-adrenergic blockers should not be used unless concomitant vasodilator therapy is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H Frishman
- Departments of Medicine, The New York Medical College/Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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29
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Feng X, Fandrick K, Johnson R, Janowsky A, Cashman JR. Syntheses of 3-carbomethoxy-4-(aryl)piperidines and in vitro and in vivo pharmacological evaluation: identification of inhibitors of the human dopamine transporter. Bioorg Med Chem 2003; 11:775-80. [PMID: 12538008 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(02)00528-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A series of 3-carbomethoxy-4-(aryl-substituted)piperidines with various aryl groups were synthesized and examined for binding and reuptake inhibition at the human dopamine transporter, the human serotonin transporter, and the human norepinephrine transporter. The binding potency and reuptake inhibition efficacy was compared with that of (-)-cocaine to determine the significance of removing the two-carbon bridge of the cocaine nucleus on the inhibition of transporter binding and reuptake. Of the transporters examined, the substituted piperidines were relatively selective for the human dopamine transporter. In all cases examined, the cis-diastereomer of the 3-carbomethoxy-4-(aryl-substituted)piperidine was observed to be a more potent inhibitor of the human dopamine transporter than the trans diastereomer. Based on the K(i) (binding) and IC(50) (reuptake inhibition) values obtained, the most potent inhibitor of the series was cis-3-carbomethoxy-4-(4'-chlorophenyl)piperidine, and this compound suppressed spontaneous- and cocaine-induced stimulation in non-habituated male Swiss-Webster mice. The conclusion is that substantial portions of the cocaine structure can be dissected away to provide compounds with significant binding and reuptake inhibition of the human dopamine transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianqi Feng
- Human BioMolecular Research Institute, 5310 Eastgate Mall, CA 92121, San Diego, USA
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30
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Abstract
Cocaine produces a pattern of cardiovascular responses that are associated with apparent myocardial ischemia, arrhythmias, and other life-threatening complications in some individuals. Despite recent efforts to better understand the causes of cocaine-induced cardiovascular dysfunction, there remain a number of unanswered questions regarding the specific mechanisms by which cocaine elicits hemodynamic responses. This review will describe the actions of cocaine on the cardiovascular system and the evidence for the mechanisms by which cocaine elicits hemodynamic and pathologic responses in humans and animals. The emphasis will be on experimental data that provide the basis for our understanding of the mechanisms of cardiovascular toxicity associated with cocaine. More importantly, this review will identify several controversies regarding the causes of cocaine-induced cardiovascular toxicity that as yet are still debated. The evidence supporting these findings will be described. Finally, this review will outline the obvious deficits in our current concepts regarding the cardiovascular actions of cocaine in hope of encouraging additional studies on this grave problem in our society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark M Knuepfer
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, St. Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 S. Grand Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA.
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31
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Choi SW, Elmaleh DR, Hanson RN, Shoup TM, Fischman AJ. Novel (bisarylmethoxy)butylpiperidine analogues as neurotransmitter transporter inhibitors with activity at dopamine receptor sites. Bioorg Med Chem 2002; 10:4091-102. [PMID: 12413863 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(02)00348-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A series of (bisarylmethoxy)butylpiperidine derivatives was prepared and evaluated in vitro and in vivo to determine the structural requirements necessary for dual activity at the DAT and DA/5-HT receptor sites. These hybrid ligands, constructed by combining pharmacophores specific for the DAT and DA/5-HT receptors, could be useful drugs for treating cocaine addiction by assisting cocaine addicts in maintaining abstinence. The series was evaluated in vitro for DAT and DA/5-HT receptor activity and then selected compounds were tested in vivo for their effects on cocaine-induced hyperlocomotor activity (LMA). The majority of the new compounds demonstrated high to moderate affinity (4-191 nM) for the DAT with 4-hydroxy-4-phenylpiperidine analogues 14 and 15 possessing the greatest affinity. Compounds 15 and 22 exhibited the highest ratio of reuptake inhibition-to-binding (discrimination ratio, DR), 111 and 323, respectively. These derivatives had modest affinity and antagonistic activity for dopamine D(2)/D(3) receptors. Compounds 9 and 15 (DR=0.9 and 111, respectively) stimulated locomotor activity, whereas the other compounds suppressed this response. All compounds tested except for 17 and 21 attenuated cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Woon Choi
- Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, USA
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32
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Rothman RB, Blough BE, Baumann MH. Appetite suppressants as agonist substitution therapies for stimulant dependence. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002; 965:109-26. [PMID: 12105089 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04155.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence support a dual-deficit model of stimulant withdrawal in which decreases in synaptic dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) contribute to withdrawal symptoms, drug craving, and relapse. According to the dual-deficit model, DA dysfunction during withdrawal underlies anhedonia and psychomotor disturbances, whereas 5-HT dysfunction gives rise to depressed mood, obsessive thoughts, and lack of impulse control. The model suggests that medications capable of normalizing stimulant-induced DA and 5-HT deficits should be effective treatment adjuncts. Furthermore, the model may explain why medications targeting only one neurotransmitter system (i.e., DA) have failed to treat cocaine dependence. Amphetamine-type appetite suppressants are logical choices for neurochemical normalization therapy of stimulant dependence, yet few clinical studies have tested anorectics in this regard. The chief purpose of the present work is to profile the activity of various anorectic agents at DA, 5-HT, and NE transporters, in order to identify possible medications for stimulant dependence. Compounds were tested in vitro for their ability to stimulate release and inhibit uptake of [(3)H]DA, [(3)H]NE, and [(3)H]5-HT. Selected compounds were tested in vivo for their ability to elevate extracellular levels of DA and 5-HT in rat nucleus accumbens. The results show that clinically available appetite suppressants display a wide range of activities at monoamine transporters. However, no single medication possesses equal potency at DA and 5-HT transporters, suggesting that none of the anorectics is ideally suited for treatment of stimulant addictions. Future efforts should focus on developing new medications that possess the desired therapeutic activity but lack the adverse effects associated with older amphetamine-type anorectics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Rothman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA.
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33
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Nicotine as an Addictive Substance: A Critical Examination of the Basic Concepts and Empirical Evidence. JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES 2001. [DOI: 10.1177/002204260103100202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The present review is a critical analysis of the concepts behind and the empirical data supporting the view that tobacco use represents an addiction to nicotine. It deals with general aspects of the notion of addiction, while concentrating on specific problems associated with incorporating nicotine into current frameworks. The notion of addiction suffers from unprecedented definitional difficulties. The definitions offered by various authorities are very different, even contradictory. Definitions that reasonably include nicotine are so broad and vague that they allow many trivial things, such as salt, sugar, and watching television, to be considered addictive. Definitions that exclude the trivia also exclude nicotine. The addiction hypothesis, in general, is strongly shaped by views that certain drugs bring about a molecular level subversion of rationality. The main human evidence for this is verbal reports of smokers who say that they can't quit. On the other hand, the existence of many millions of successful quitters suggests that most people can quit. Some smokers don't quit, but whether they can't is another matter. The addiction hypothesis would be greatly strengthened by the demonstration that any drug of abuse produces special changes in the brain. It has yet to be shown that any drug produces changes in the brain different from those produced by many innocuous substances and events. The effects of nicotine on the brain are similar to those of sugar, salt, exercise, and other harmless substances and events. Apart from numerous conceptual and definitional inadequacies with the addiction concept in general, the notion that nicotine is addictive lacks reasonable empirical support. Nicotine does not have the properties of reference drugs of abuse. There are so many findings that conflict so starkly with the view that nicotine is addictive that it increasingly appears that adhering to the nicotine addiction thesis is only defensible on extra-scientific grounds.
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34
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Matsushita M, Hoffman TZ, Ashley JA, Zhou B, Wirsching P, Janda KD. Cocaine catalytic antibodies: the primary importance of linker effects. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2001; 11:87-90. [PMID: 11206477 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(00)00659-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Current treatments for cocaine addiction are not effective. The development of a catalytic monoclonal antibody (mAb) provides a strategy for not only binding, but also degrading cocaine, which offers a broad-based therapy. Hapten design is the central element for programming antibody catalysis. The characteristics of the linker used in classic transition-state analogue phosphonate haptens were shown to be important for obtaining mAbs that hydrolyze the benzoate ester of cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Matsushita
- The Scripps Research Institute and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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35
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Mukunda BN, Callahan JM, Hobbs MS, West BC. Cocaine inhibits human neutrophil phagocytosis and phagolysosomal acidification in vitro. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2000; 22:373-86. [PMID: 10952037 DOI: 10.3109/08923970009016426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine, used intravenously, increases the risk of infections, but its effects on neutrophil phagocytosis have not been examined in vitro. Human neutrophils were suspended in cocaine hydrochloride 0, 1, 10, 50, 100 or 200 microg/ml in Hank's balanced salt solution to which was added a phagocytic meal of killed Saccharomyces cerevisiae stained with the pH indicator dye bromcresol purple. Yeast per phagocytosing neutrophil and the percent neutrophils phagocytosing yeast were reduced in neutrophils treated with cocaine 100 and 200 microg/ml (P < 0.05). When examined for percent of yeast phagocytosed after 10 minutes, neutrophils treated with cocaine 1-200 microg/ml demonstrated a decrease (P < 0.05). However, at 60 minutes only neutrophils treated with cocaine 50 and 100 microg/ml still showed a decrease in percent of yeast phagocytosed. Phagolysosomal acidification was impaired in neutrophils treated with 50, 100 and 200 microg/ml cocaine. Thus, cocaine inhibits neutrophil phagocytosis and phagolysosomal acidification in vitro, offering a reason for cocaine users/abusers to have impaired host defense and to be potentially at higher risk for infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- B N Mukunda
- Department of Medicine Research Laboratory, Huron Hospital, East Cleveland, OH 44112, USA
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Villemagne VL, Rothman RB, Yokoi F, Rice KC, Matecka D, Dannals RF, Wong DF. Doses of GBR12909 that suppress cocaine self-administration in non-human primates substantially occupy dopamine transporters as measured by [11C] WIN35,428 PET scans. Synapse 1999; 32:44-50. [PMID: 10188637 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2396(199904)32:1<44::aid-syn6>3.0.co;2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
GBR12909 (GBR) is a high-affinity, selective, and long-acting inhibitor of dopamine (DA) uptake that produces a persistent and noncompetitive blockade of DA transporters and substantially reduces cocaine-induced increases in extracellular DA in the nucleus accumbens of rats. Prior studies showed that intravenous infusion of GBR to Rhesus monkeys selectively reduced (1 mg/kg) and eliminated (3 mg/kg) cocaine self-administration. This study tested the hypothesis that doses of GBR that reduce cocaine self-administration in nonhuman primates produce significant occupation of DA transporters. DA transporters were quantitated in two baboons using [11C]WIN35,428 and positron emission tomography (PET). Each baboon underwent paired control/blocked PET scans (performed on three separate study days, 3-4 weeks apart). On the first scan the baboon received saline (3 ml/kg) 90 minutes before the injection of the radiotracer. GBR (1 mg/kg i.v.) was infused 90 minutes before the second [11C]WIN 35,428 study. The same experimental design was repeated with GBR doses of 3 and 10 mg/kg, respectively. Doses of 1 (n = 2), 3 mg/kg (n = 2), and 10 mg/kg (n = 2) reduced binding potential by 26, 53, and 72%, respectively. GBR was well tolerated in all baboons. These results demonstrate that doses of GBR that suppress cocaine self-administration in nonhuman primates also produce high occupancy of the DA transporter. These data strongly suggest that occupancy for the DA transporter by GBR explains its ability to attenuate cocaine-induced increases in extracellular DA and to suppress cocaine self-administration. Moreover, these data suggest that experimental human studies of orally administered GBR to test the DA hypothesis of cocaine addiction should use doses that produce at least 70% occupancy of the DA transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Villemagne
- Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland 21287-0807, USA
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Rothman RB, Silverthorn ML, Glowa JR, Matecka D, Rice KC, Carroll FI, Partilla JS, Uhl GR, Vandenbergh DJ, Dersch CM. Studies of the biogenic amine transporters. VII. Characterization of a novel cocaine binding site identified with [125I]RTI-55 in membranes prepared from human, monkey and guinea pig caudate. Synapse 1998; 28:322-38. [PMID: 9517841 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2396(199804)28:4<322::aid-syn8>3.0.co;2-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
[125I]RTI-55 is a cocaine analog with high affinity for dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) transporters. Quantitative ligand binding studies revealed a novel high affinity [125I]RTI-55 binding site assayed under 5-HT transporter (SERT) conditions which has low affinity for almost all classic biogenic amine transporter ligands, including high affinity 5-HT transporter inhibitors such as paroxetine, but which retains high affinity for cocaine analogs. This site, termed SERT(site2) for its detection under 5-HT transporter conditions (not for an association with the SERT) occurs in monkey caudate, human caudate, and guinea pig caudate membranes, but not in rat caudate membranes. SERT(site2) is distinguished from the DA transporter (DAT) and SERT by several criteria, including a distinct ligand-selectivity profile, the inability to detect SERT(site2) in cells stably expressing the cloned human DAT, and insensitivity to irreversible ligands which inhibit [125I]RTI-55 binding to the DAT and SERT. Perhaps the most striking finding about SERT(site2) is that a wide range of representative antidepressant agents have very low affinity for SERT(site2). The affinity of cocaine for this site is not very different from the concentration cocaine achieves in the brain at pharmacological doses. Viewed collectively with the observation that ligands with high affinity for SERT(site2) are mostly cocaine analogs, these data lead us to speculate that actions of cocaine which differ from those of classic biogenic amine uptake inhibitors may be mediated in part via SERT(site2).
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Rothman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, DIR, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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Abstract
PURPOSE To review the medical complications of cocaine abuse and the mechanisms of action of cocaine that contribute to medical complications. DATA SOURCES Pertinent articles identified through a MEDLINE search of the English-language literature from 1985 to 1996 and through a manual search of bibliographies of all identified articles. STUDY SELECTION All articles describing complications of cocaine use including case reports, small reported series, and review articles. DATA SYNTHESIS A qualitative description of reported complications. RESULTS Since the introduction of freebase and crack cocaine, multiple medical complications have been observed, and all major body organ systems have been affected. Cocaine can cause acute strokes, myocardial infarction, cardiac dysrhythmias, pulmonary edema, rhabdomyolysis, and acute renal failure. CONCLUSION Adverse reactions to cocaine should be considered in the differential diagnosis of acute ischemic events that occur in young adults. General awareness of the significant complications of cocaine will facilitate early diagnosis and prompt treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Boghdadi
- Division of Cardiology, University of South Florida, Tampa, USA
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Abstract
The abuse of cocaine has dramatically increased in the recent decade. Cocaine obtained on the illegal market is rarely found in pure form. Most often it is adulterated with various substances, especially other local anesthetics. Lidocaine is one of the most common local anesthetics employed for adulteration of illicit cocaine. Toxicity due to the simultaneous ingestion of cocaine and lidocaine has been reported. Acute toxicity to cocaine and other local anesthetics is manifested in central nervous system aberrations, such as seizures and convulsions. This study investigated the convulsant potency of cocaine and lidocaine alone and in combination. Rats were administered intravenous injections of 5 mg/kg or 20 mg/kg of cocaine or lidocaine alone and in combination in equal proportion. Seizure activity and intensity were evaluated. The plasma concentration and brain content of each agent was also determined at the time of toxicity. The administration of 5 mg/kg of each drug alone did not yield seizure activity. However, the concomitant administration of 5 mg/kg of both cocaine and lidocaine produced a seizure response nearly equal to that produced after administration of 20 mg/kg of cocaine alone. Diazepam pre-treatment successfully antagonized the seizures induced by cocaine and lidocaine and raised the seizure threshold dose for the combination treatment by approximately four fold. The results suggest that cocaine and lidocaine interact synergistically to increase seizure activity and that the nature of this response occurs in part through a depression of inhibitory neuronal transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Barat
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark 07103-2714, USA
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Kelley BM, Middaugh LD. Ethanol self-administration and motor deficits in adults C57BL/6J mice exposed prenatally to cocaine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1996; 55:575-84. [PMID: 8981588 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(96)00289-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Daily injections of 10 mg/kg cocaine on gestation days 12-18 did not alter maternal weight gain or offspring birth weight, viability, growth, or adult weight compared to saline controls. Adult male and female offspring were food deprived and trained to lever press for ethanol. Responding on an FR2 schedule and ethanol intake (g/kg) were recorded as measures of the reinforcing effects of ethanol. Lever press duration was used to assess motor performance. Results demonstrate that C57 mice will work for and consume large quantities of ethanol and that prenatal cocaine exposure increased the amounts ingested by both male and female mice. Prenatal-cocaine-exposed males also exhibited motor deficits as indicated by longer response duration times compared to controls. The consumption of large amounts of ethanol exacerbated the motor impairment in prenatal-cocaine males and revealed such deficits in cocaine females. The present results demonstrate that maternal cocaine exposure, at doses having no observable effect upon pregnancy, birth, or offspring growth, can increase the consumption of ethanol and enhance its motor impairing effects on fully mature offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Kelley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston 29425-0742, USA
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Abstract
Cocaine abuse has resulted in complications involving an increasing number of organ systems. This article presents a case report and discussion of renal infarction occurring in association with nasal insufflation of cocaine powder. Possible etiology and suggested workup of such patients is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Goodman
- Department of Emergency Medicine, East Carolina University School of Medicine, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- V P Kodali
- Division of Gastroenterology-Hepatology, William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, Michigan 48073, USA
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Abstract
Cocaine use is accompanied by a high risk of serious adverse effects involving the cardiovascular system. The basic cellular mechanisms of cocaine consist in [1] a potentiation of catecholamine effects by inhibition of the presynaptic uptake carrier [2] local anesthetic effects by the block of sodium-channels. Acute ischemic events can be induced by cocaine through coronary spasms in a situation of physiologic stress already accompanied by an enhanced myocardial oxygen demand. Procoagulant properties of cocaine may, moreover, favor coronary thrombosis formation and the development of myocardial infarction. Ischemia, reperfusion and the direct action of catecholamines on cardiocytes are accompanied by enhanced cytoplasmic calcium levels, inducing delayed after-potentials, repetitive action-potential generation and premature ventricular beats. Conduction velocity impairments caused by the local anesthetic effects of cocaine and inhomogeneous repolarization phenomena related to potassium channel inhibition may form a substrate for re-entrant circuits inducing ventricular fibrillation. Cocaine abuse may also cause degenerative and inflammatory alterations of the myocardium. Besides secondary ischemic changes, hypersensitivity-myocarditis and toxic cardiomyopathies that may be due to the cardiotoxic effects of catecholamines have been described in cocaine abusers. Moreover, persons using cocaine intravenously seem to be particularly endangered by bacterial endocarditis compared to the users of other intravenous drugs, for still unknown reasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- A F Rump
- Institut für Pharmakologie, Universität Köln, Cologne, Germany
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Abstract
It has become increasingly apparent that cocaine abuse can provoke lethal cardiac events, including myocardial infarction and ventricular fibrillation. The mechanisms responsible for these cardiotoxic actions of cocaine largely remain to be determined. Cocaine has two primary pharmacological properties that can adversely affect the heart and vasculature. Cocaine acts both as a local anesthetic (sodium and potassium channel blockade) and as a powerful cardiac stimulant that accentuates the actions of the sympathetic nervous system (inhibition of central and peripheral neuronal catecholamine uptake). The local anesthetic properties could impair impulse conduction, as well as elicit inhomogeneities in repolarization (refractory period), which creates an ideal substrate for reentrant arrhythmias. In addition, high doses of cocaine can depress contractile function due to inhibition of sodium/calcium exchange that results from decreased sodium influx (local anesthetic action). These actions are particularly obvious when sympathomimetic effects of cocaine are blunted. In a similar manner, the cocaine-induced accumulation of catecholamines potentiates the activation of alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors, which can provoke coronary vasospasm (myocardial ischemia and infarction), increased contractile force (increased metabolic demand), and cardiac arrhythmias. The activation of adrenergic receptors will elicit a cascade of second messengers, ultimately provoking an increase in cytosolic calcium. These elevations in cytosolic calcium can provoke oscillations in membrane potential, triggering sustained action potential generation and extrasystoles. In particular, activation of the alpha IA-adrenergic receptor subtype and corresponding increase in calcium influx via voltage sensitive (L type) channels may play a critical role in the genesis of malignant arrhythmias. Thus, the adrenergic and local anesthetic properties of cocaine could act synergistically to elicit toxic actions on the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- G E Billman
- Department of Physiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
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Phillips DL, Tebbett IR, Masten S, Shiverick KT. Stimulatory effects of cocaine and its metabolites on IM-9 human B-lymphoblastoid cells. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1995; 17:57-63. [PMID: 7782154 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(94)00084-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of cocaine and its metabolites benzoylecgonine, norcocaine, and cocaethylene on human B-cell proliferation using IM-9 cells. Cells were incubated with 0.01-10 micrograms/ml of cocaine or metabolite in serum-free medium or medium containing 2% FBS for 24 and 48 h, and [3H] thymidine incorporation into DNA was measured using liquid scintillation counting. Results showed incubation with cocaine and metabolites significantly increased IM-9 cell proliferation. With cocaine, maximal stimulation of 148% (compared to drug-free control) occurred at 1.0 micrograms/ml in serum-free medium at 48 h. Benzoylecgonine and norcocaine showed maximal stimulation at 0.1 micrograms/ml with 170% and 150% stimulation, respectively. Cocaethylene showed maximal stimulation of 146% at 10 micrograms/ml. Drug stability was monitored under incubation conditions using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We have shown that cocaine and its major metabolites have an immunomodulatory effect on B-cell proliferation at concentrations equivalent to serum levels produced during cocaine use in humans. Since the cocaine metabolites also show an immunomodulatory effect, the immune consequences of cocaine use may be significantly prolonged.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Phillips
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville 32610, USA
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