The relationship between the presence of periodontopathogenic bacteria in saliva and halitosis

Relationship Between the Salivary Microbiome and Oral Malodor Metabolites in Older Thai Individuals with Periodontitis and the Cytotoxic Effects of Malodor Compounds on Human Oral Squamous Carcinoma (HSC-4) Cells

Background/Objectives: Halitosis is primarily caused by the activity of oral microorganisms. In this study, we employed metagenomic sequencing and metabolomic approaches to investigate the differences in salivary microbiota and metabolite profiles between individuals with halitosis and periodontitis and healthy controls. Additionally, we expanded the study to examine how oral malodorous compounds interact with human oral squamous carcinoma (HSC-4) cells. Methods: Saliva samples were collected and analyzed using Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) to identify metabolites. We then assessed the correlations between the microbiota and metabolites. Furthermore, the impact of oral malodorous substances on HSC-4 cells was investigated by evaluating apoptosis, antioxidant activity, and inflammatory properties. Results: The microbiota and metabolite profiles showed significant differences between the halitosis with periodontitis group and the periodontally healthy group. The halitosis with periodontitis group exhibited significantly higher relative abundances of eight genera: Tannerella, Selenomonas, Bacteroides, Filifactor, Phocaeicola, Fretibacterium, Eubacterium saphenum, and Desulfobulbus. In contrast, the periodontally healthy group showed significantly higher relative abundances of Family XIII UCG-001, Haemophilus, and Streptobacillus. Two metabolites, 2,3-dihydro-1H-indole and 10,11-dihydro-12R-hydroxy-leukotriene E4, were significantly higher in individuals with halitosis and periodontitis. In the treatment of HSC-4 cells with metabolites, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) did not show significant effects while indole appeared to induce cell death in HSC-4 cells by triggering apoptotic pathways. Additionally, both indole and DMS affected the inflammatory and antioxidant properties of HSC-4 cells. Conclusions: This study provides insights into the mechanisms of halitosis by exploring the correlations between microbiota and metabolite profiles. Furthermore, oral metabolites were shown to impact the cellular response of HSC-4 cells.

Short term effect of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy and probiotic L. salivarius WB21 on halitosis: A controlled and randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) and the use of probiotics on the treatment of halitosis.

METHODS

Fifty-two participants, aged from 18 to 25 years, exhaling sulfhydride (H2S) ≥ 112 ppb were selected. They were allocated into 4 groups (n = 13): Group 1: tongue scraper; Group 2: treated once with aPDT; Group 3: probiotic capsule containing Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 (6.7 x 108 CFU) and xylitol (280mg), 3 times a day after meals, for 14 days; Group 4: treated once with aPDT and with the probiotic capsule for 14 days. Halimetry with gas chromatography (clinical evaluation) and microbiological samples were collected from the dorsum of the tongue before and after aPDT, as well as after 7, 14, and 30 days. The clinical data failed to follow a normal distribution; therefore, comparisons were made using the Kruskal-Wallis test (independent measures) and Friedman ANOVA (dependent measures) followed by appropriate posthoc tests, when necessary. For the microbiological data, seeing as the data failed to follow a normal distribution, the Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test was performed with Dunn's post-test. The significance level was α = 0.05.

RESULTS

Clinical results (halimetry) showed an immediate significant reduction in halitosis with aPDT (p = 0.0008) and/or tongue scraper (p = 0.0006). Probiotics showed no difference in relation to the initial levels (p = 0.7530). No significant differences were found in the control appointments. The amount of Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia, and Treponema denticola were not altered throughout the analysis (p = 0.1616, p = 0.2829 and p = 0.2882, respectively).

CONCLUSION

There was an immediate clinical reduction of halitosis with aPDT and tongue scraping, but there was no reduction in the number of bacteria throughout the study, or differences in the control times, both in the clinical and microbiological results. New clinical trials are necessary to better assess the tested therapies.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical Trials NCT03996044.

Effects of honokiol combined with resveratrol on bacteria responsible for oral malodor and their biofilm

Background

This study aimed to investigate the effect of honokiol combined with resveratrol on bacteria responsible for oral malodor and their biofilm.

Method

This study investigated drug's MIC, FICI and dynamic bactericidal susceptibility activities against Pg and Fn. The effects of drugs on biofilm metabolic activity, biofilm total amount, and biofilm microstructure were determined by CCK-8 experiment, semi-quantitative adhesion experiment and SEM, respectively. The effects of drugs on biofilm genes, extracellular polysaccharides, proteins and DNA content were determined by qRT-PCR, phenol-sulfuric acid method, BCA method and Nano Drop one C, respectively.

Results

The combination had synergistic antibacterial effect on Pg and Fn. 1/2×MIC and 1×MIC combination inhibit the whole process of Pg and Fn growth. The results showed that the combination effectively reduce biofilm metabolic activity and total amount, and destroy biofilm microstructure. The results showed that the combination downregulate the gene expression both Pg and Fn, reduce extracellular polysaccharides and DNA of Pg, and reduce extracellular proteins and DNA of Fn.

Conclusion

This study showed that the combination had a synergistic antibacterial effect on Pg and Fn, reduced the biofilm extracellular matrix, inhibited biofilm formation, and downregulated the expression of genes related to biofilm formation.

Effect of sleeve gastrectomy on the levels of oral volatile sulfur compounds and halitosis-related bacteria

Background

The association between sleeve gastrectomy and halitosis remains relatively unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of sleeve gastrectomy on halitosis and the oral bacterial species associated with halitosis in patients with obesity.

Methods

This was a prospective longitudinal cohort study that examined patients before and after sleeve gastrectomy and followed the patients at three time intervals (1, 3, and 6 months) after sleeve gastrectomy. Clinical periodontal measurements (plaque index [PI], gingival index [GI], and probing depth [PD]) were obtained. In addition, plaque samples were collected for quantification of the periodontopathogenic bacteria: Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia, Treponema denticola, and Fusobacterium nucleatum using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). In addition, breath samples were collected to analyze the concentration of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), namely hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methyl mercaptan (CH3SH), and dimethyl sulfide (CH3SCH3), via portable gas chromatography (Oral Chroma™).

Results

Of the 43 patients initially included, 39 completed the study, with a mean age of 32.2 ± 10.4 years. For PI and GI repeated measurements one way analysis of variance showed a significant increase (p-value < 0.001 for both) one month after surgery, with mean values of 1.3 and 1.59, respectively, compared to the baseline. During the same period, the number of P. gingivalis increased, with a p-value = 0.04. Similarly, the levels of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) increased significantly in the first month after surgery (p-value = 0.02 and 0.01, respectively).

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that sleeve gastrectomy may lead to increased halitosis one month post-surgery, attributed to elevated and P. gingivalis counts, contributing to the development of gingivitis in obese patients who underwent sleeve gastrectomy. This emphasizes the importance of including oral health professionals in the multidisciplinary team for the management of patients undergoing bariatric surgery.

Narrative review on artificially intelligent olfaction in halitosis

Halitosis, commonly known as oral malodor, is a multifactorial health concern that significantly impacts the psychological and social well-being of individuals. It is the third most frequent reason for individuals to seek dental treatment, after dental caries and periodontal diseases. For an in-depth exploration of the topic of halitosis, an extensive literature review was conducted. The review focused on articles published in peer-reviewed journals and only those written in the English language were considered. The search for relevant literature began by employing subject headings such as 'halitosis, oral malodor, volatile sulfur compounds, artificial intelligence, and olfaction' in databases such as PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and EMBASE. Additionally, a thorough hand search of references was conducted to ensure the comprehensiveness of the review. After amalgamating the search outcomes, a comprehensive analysis revealed the existence of precisely 134 full-text articles that bore relevance to the study. Abstracts and editorial letters were excluded from this study, and almost 50% of the full-text articles were deemed immaterial to dental practice. Out of the remaining articles, precisely 54 full-text articles were employed in this review. As primary healthcare providers, dentists are responsible for diagnosing and treating oral issues that may contribute to the development of halitosis. To effectively manage this condition, dentists must educate their patients about the underlying causes of halitosis, as well as proper oral hygiene practices such as tongue cleaning, flossing, and selecting appropriate mouthwash and toothpaste. This narrative review summarises all possible AI olfaction in halitosis.

Effects of a novel dental chew on oral health outcomes, halitosis, and microbiota of adult dogs

Halitosis in dogs is an initial indication of periodontitis, highlighting its significance as a vital marker for underlying problems. Moreover, the oral microbial population has a significant influence on periodontal disease. Measuring the oral microbiota may be used in addition to breath odor, dental plaque, and gingivitis scoring to assess the impact of dental chews on oral health. In this study, we aimed to determine the differences in breath odor, oral health outcomes, and oral microbiota of adult dogs consuming a novel dental chew compared with control dogs consuming only a diet. Twelve healthy adult female beagle dogs were used in a crossover design study. Treatments (n = 12/group) included: diet only (control) or the diet + a novel dental chew. Each day, one chew was provided 4 h after mealtime. On days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 27, breath samples were analyzed for total volatile sulfur compound concentrations using a halimeter. On day 0 of each period, teeth were cleaned by a veterinary dentist blinded to treatments. Teeth were scored for plaque, calculus, and gingivitis by the same veterinary dentist on day 28 of each period. After scoring, subgingival and supragingival plaque samples were collected for microbiota analysis using Illumina MiSeq. All data were analyzed using SAS (version 9.4) using the Mixed Models procedure, with P < 0.05 being significant. Overall, the dental chews were well accepted. Dogs consuming the dental chews had lower calculus coverage, thickness, and scores, lower gingivitis scores, and less pocket bleeding than control dogs. Breath volatile sulfur compounds were lower in dogs consuming the dental chews. Bacterial alpha-diversity analysis demonstrated that control dogs had higher bacterial richness than dogs fed dental chews. Bacterial beta-diversity analysis demonstrated that samples clustered based on treatment. In subgingival and supragingival plaque, control dogs had higher relative abundances of potentially pathogenic bacteria (Pelistega, Desulfovibrio, Desulfomicrobium, Fretibacterium, Helcococcus, and Treponema) and lower relative abundances of genera associated with oral health (Neisseria, Actinomyces, and Corynebacterium). Our results suggest that the dental chew tested in this study may aid in reducing periodontal disease risk in dogs by beneficially shifting the microbiota population and inhabiting plaque buildup.

Volatile sulfide compounds and oral microorganisms on the inner surface of masks in individuals with halitosis during COVID-19 pandemic

Mask-wearing is still recommended owing to the continuing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Within the closed chamber created by the mask, people are increasingly self-aware of their oral malodor. In this prospective and cross-sectional study, we aimed to measure volatile sulfide compound (VSC) levels in patients with halitosis and investigate the oral microbiome profile on the inner surface of their KF94 masks. We also investigated which oral microbiota increases VSC levels and whether the oral microbiomes of oral saliva and mask are correlated. A total of 50 subjects (41 women, average age 38.12 ± 12.58 years old) were included in the study, 25 healthy subjects and 25 patients with halitosis who wore masks for more than 3 h. The dominant bacterial species, bacterial profile, and Shannon diversity index of whole unstimulated saliva and the inner surface of the mask were investigated. The bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA genes of the major oral bacterial species were analyzed using real-time PCR. Gas chromatography was used to measure hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and methyl mercaptan (CH₃SH), which are representative VSCs. The total bacterial DNA copy number was significantly higher in the saliva sample than in the mask sample (p < 0.001), and the average value was 276 times greater. Shannon diversity index was also significantly higher in saliva than in the inner surface of the mask (2.62 ± 0.81 vs. 1.15 ± 1.52, p < 0.001). The most common Gram-negative and Gram-positive species in the masks were Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg) and Lactobacillus casei (Lc), respectively. The bacterial species with significant positive correlations between saliva and mask samples were Prevotella intermedia (Pi) (r = 0.324, p = 0.022), Eikenella corrodens (r = 0.309, p = 0.029), Lc (r = 0.293, p = 0.039), and Parvimonas micra (Pm) (r = 0.366, p = 0.009). The mean value of CH₃SH was significantly higher in the halitosis group than in the non-halitosis group (17.84 ± 29.00 vs. 3.84 ± 10.57 ppb, p = 0.031). In the halitosis group, the DNA copy numbers and VSC levels showed highly positive correlation coefficients in the order Pg, Treponema denticola (Td), Tannerella forsythia (Tf), Pi, and Prevotella nigrescens (Pn) (all p < 0.05). Regarding bacterial profiles of the mask, Td was strongly correlated with CH₃SH (r = 0.414, p = 0.040) and total VSCs (r = 0.374, p = 0.033) only in halitosis group. Mask-wearing time was strongly correlated with total VSCs, H₂S, and CH₃SH (all r > 0.8, p < 0.001). Oral bacteria, whose association with halitosis has been identified, increased VSC levels in mask-wearing subjects during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly the number of Gram-negative anaerobes such as Pg and Td. Mask-wearing time was a major factor in increasing VSC levels. The study results suggest that people with halitosis could control these Gram-negative bacteria by improving oral hygiene and regularly changing masks.

Daily use of chlorine dioxide effectively treats halitosis: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to conduct a systematic review on published data in order to investigate the efficacy of mouthwash products containing chlorine dioxide in halitosis.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

Our search was conducted on 14th October 2021. We searched the following electronic databases: MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and CENTRAL. We analysed data on adults with halitosis, included only randomised controlled trials and excluded in vitro and animal studies. The interventional groups used chlorine dioxide, and the comparator groups used a placebo or other mouthwash. Our primary outcomes were changes in organoleptic test scores (OLS) and Volatile Sulfur Compound (VSC) levels from baseline to the last available follow-up.

RESULTS

We found 325 articles in databases. After the selection process, ten articles were eligible for qualitative synthesis, and 7 RCTs with 234 patients were involved in the meta-analysis. Our findings showed a significant improvement in the parameters of the chlorine dioxide group compared to the placebo group in OLS one-day data (mean difference (MD): -0.82; 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs): [-1.04 --0.6]; heterogeneity: I2 = 0%, p = 0.67); and one-week OLS data (MD: -0.24; 95% CIs: [-0.41 --0.07]; I2 = 0%, p = 0.52); and also changes in H2S one-day data (standardised mean difference (SMD): -1.81; 95% CIs: [-2.52 --1.10]); I2 = 73.4%, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that chlorine dioxide mouthwash may be a good supportive therapy in oral halitosis without known side effects.

Volatile composition of the morning breath

We have measured the composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the morning breath of 30 healthy individuals before and after tooth brushing. The concentrations of VOCs in the breath samples were measured with proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS) and further identification was performed with a combination of solid phase microextraction (SPME) and offline gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We hypothesize that compounds, whose concentrations significantly decreased in the breath after tooth brushing are largely of microbial origin. In this study, we found 35 such VOCs. Out of these, 33 have been previously connected to different oral niches, such as salivary and subgingival bacteria. We also compared the concentrations of the 35 VOCs found in increased amounts in the morning breath to their respective odor thresholds to evaluate their ability to cause odor. Compounds that could contribute to the breath odor include many volatile sulfur compounds, such as methanethiol, hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, and 2-methyl-1-propanethiol, but also other VOCs, such as acetic acid, butyric acid, valeric acid, acetaldehyde, octanal, phenol, indole, ammonia, isoprene, and methyl methacrylate.

Oral Microbiota Populations of Adult Dogs Consuming Wet or Dry Foods

Oral microbiota play a prominent role in canine periodontal disease and wet foods are often blamed for poor oral health, but canine oral microbial communities have been poorly studied. We aimed to determine differences in oral health measures, breath odor, and oral microbiota populations of dogs fed wet or dry food. Twelve adult dogs fed either a commercial dry (extruded) or commercial wet (canned) food for 6 wk were studied. Breath samples were measured for sulfur compounds, teeth were scored for plaque, calculus, and gingivitis by a blinded veterinary dentist, salivary pH was measured, and supragingival (SUP) and subgingival (SUB) plaque samples were collected for microbiota analysis. Plaque DNA was extracted and Illumina sequencing conducted. Phylogenetic data were analyzed using the CosmosID bioinformatics platform and SAS 9.4, with P<0.05 being significant and P<0.10 being trends. Plaque coverage tended to be higher (P<0.10) in dogs fed wet vs. dry food, but other oral health scores were not different. Dogs fed dry food had higher (P<0.05) salivary pH and lower (P<0.05) breath sulfur concentrations than those consuming wet food. Bacterial alpha diversity was higher in SUP than SUB samples, and a clear separation in beta diversity was observed between sample sites on principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) plots. In SUP samples, dogs fed wet food had a higher alpha diversity than dogs fed dry food, with PCoA plots showing a separation between wet and dry food. Relative abundances of Firmicutes, Synergistetes, and 10 bacterial genera were different (P<0.05) in SUB samples of dogs fed wet vs. dry food. Relative abundances of Fusobacteria and over 20 bacterial genera were different (P<0.05) in SUP samples of dogs fed wet vs. dry food. In general, oral health-associated bacterial taxa (Pasteurella, Capnocytophaga, Corynebacterium) were higher, while bacteria associated with poor oral health (Fretibacterium fastidiosum, Filifactor alocis, Treponema medium, Tannerella forsythia, Porphyromonas canoris, Porphyromonas gingivalis) were lower in dogs fed dry food. Such shifts in the oral microbiota may impact periodontal disease risk, but longer dietary intervention studies are required to confirm their role in the disease process. Our results suggest that dogs fed dry extruded foods have lower breath odor and tooth plaque buildup and an oral microbiota population more closely associated with oral health than dogs fed wet canned foods.

Effectiveness of oral care interventions on malodour in dogs

BACKGROUND

Oral malodour is identified by pet owners as an unpleasant inconvenience, but they may not recognise this likely indicates underlying disease. The primary cause of oral malodour relates to the presence of bacteria in the oral cavity often associated with gingivitis and periodontitis. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of feeding two oral care chews with different textural properties on oral malodour and the proportion of bacterial species involved in the production of volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs).

METHODS

Fourteen dogs (9 Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen (PBGV) and 5 Beagle dogs) participated in the randomised cross-over study for a total of 14 weeks. The cohort was divided into four groups with each exposed to a different intervention per week: chew A, chew B, tooth brushing control or a no intervention control. An induced malodour method was used to assess VSCs in breath samples using a portable gas chromatograph (OralChroma™). Microbiological samples (supragingival plaque and tongue coating scrapes) were analysed for VSC-producing bacteria using Oral Hydrogen Sulfide agar with lead acetate.

RESULTS

VSCs were detected in the dogs' breath samples and levels of hydrogen sulphide and methyl mercaptan were found to be reduced following an intervention. Chew B significantly reduced the levels of both hydrogen sulphide (p < 0.001) and methyl mercaptan (p < 0.05) compared to no intervention. Reductions in methyl mercaptan were also observed for chew A and tooth brushing but these were not statistically significant. When compared to no intervention, all interventions significantly reduced the total bacterial load and VSC producing bacterial load in plaque (p < 0.001). For tongue samples, only chew B significantly reduced the total bacterial load and VSC-producing bacterial load (p < 0.001) compared to no intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

By inducing oral malodour and subsequently applying the one-time interventions, significant reductions in the levels of VSCs were observed. The use of oral care chews texturally designed to deliver a deep, all-round cleaning action can be particularly effective at managing oral malodour in dogs, likely through an enhanced ability to remove bacteria.

Profiling volatile compounds from culture supernatants of periodontal bacteria using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry/olfactometry analysis with a monolithic silica gel adsorption device

Halitosis is formed mainly by the volatile compounds produced by periodontal bacteria. Three volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, and dimethyl sulfide, have attracted attention as major components of halitosis. However, these compounds cannot account for all odors. In this study, we profiled volatile compounds from the culture supernatants of periodontal bacteria using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry/olfactometry analysis with a monolithic silica gel adsorption device to investigate the potential odorous compounds. Periodontal bacteria have been found to produce volatile compounds belonging to various classes, such as alcohols, ketones, fatty acids, and aromatic compounds, in addition to VSCs. In addition, VSCs different from hydrogen sulfide and methanethiol, which are considered important causative compounds, may also influence to halitosis.

Thinned-Young Apple Polyphenols Inhibit Halitosis-Related Bacteria Through Damage to the Cell Membrane

The thinned young apple is a by-product and is generally discarded in the orchard during fruit thinning. The polyphenol content of thinned young apples is about 10 times more than that of ripe apples. In our study, the antibacterial effect of thinned young apple polyphenols (YAP) on the halitosis-related bacteria including Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedius, and Fusobacterium nucleatum was investigated. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of YAP against P. gingivalis, P. intermedia, and F. nucleatum were 8.0, 8.0, and 12.0 mg/ml, while the minimum bactericidal concentrations were 10.0, 10.0, and 14.0 mg/ml, respectively. The scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses showed that after YAP treatment, the membrane surface of halitosis-related bacterial cells was coarse and the cell wall and membrane were separated and eventually ruptured. The integrity of the cell membrane was determined by flow cytometry, indicating that the cells with the integrity membrane significantly reduced as the YAP concentration treatment increased. The release of proteins and nucleic acids into the cell suspension significantly increased, and the membrane potential reduced after the YAP treatment. This research illustrated the antibacterial mechanism of YAP against halitosis-related bacteria and provided a scientific basis of utilizing the polyphenols from the discarded thinned young apples.

Relationships between Solobacterium moorei and Prevotella intermedia in subgingival microbiota of periodontitis patients with halitosis: A preliminary study using qPCR

Objective

Material & methods

Results

Conclusion

Pilot study on selective antimicrobial effect of a halitosis mouthrinse: monospecies and saliva-derived microbiome in an in vitro model system

Background

Halitosis refers to malodor emanating from the oral cavity. Several mouthrinses with halitosis-reduction exist on the market, but their effect on the oral microbiome is largely unknown. In this study, we used an efficient in vitro model system to investigate a test mouthrinse's impact on the oral microbiome.

Methods

Single halitosis-associated species and other common oral microorganism cultures were exposed to the test mouthrinse over time, and their viability was determined by culture-based selective plating. Next, the saliva-derived microbiome from healthy and halitosis-associated individuals was cultured in the presence of the test mouthrinse over time using the previously developed in vitro model system. The microbiome composition was assessed with 16S rRNA gene sequencing and downstream bioinformatics analyses.

Results

The test mouthrinse displayed antimicrobial activity against known anaerobic bacterial species producing halitosis-related compounds such as Fusobacterium nucleatum, F. periodonticum, and Prevotella intermedia but not against other common oral microorganisms. In the multispecies, saliva-derived cultures, mouthrinse exposure decreased the relative abundance of the Fusobacterium and Prevotella genera while not affecting overall diversity.

Conclusions

The test mouthrinse had promising anti-halitosis characteristics at the microbiome level, as demonstrated by the reduction in the relative abundance of halitosis-associated taxa while maintaining microbial diversity.

Effect of cranberry juice deacidification on its antibacterial activity against periodontal pathogens and its anti-inflammatory properties in an oral epithelial cell model

Cranberries are widely recognized as a functional food that can promote oral health. However, the high concentration of organic acids in cranberry juice can cause tooth enamel erosion. Electrodialysis with bipolar membrane (EDBM) is a process used for the deacidification of cranberry juice. The present study investigated whether the removal of organic acids (0%, 19%, 42%, 60%, and 79%) from cranberry juice by EDBM affects its antibacterial activity against major periodontopathogens as well as its anti-inflammatory properties in an oral epithelial cell model. A deacidification rate ≥60% attenuated the bactericidal effect against planktonic and biofilm-embedded Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans but had no impact on Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum. Cranberry juice increased the adherence of A. actinomycetemcomitans and P. gingivalis to oral epithelial cells, but reduced the adherence of F. nucleatum by half regardless of the deacidification rate. F. nucleatum produced more hydrogen sulfide when it was exposed to deacidified cranberry juice with a deacidification rate ≥42% compared to the raw beverage. Interestingly, the removal of organic acids from cranberry juice lowered the cytotoxicity of the beverage for oral epithelial cells. Deacidification attenuated the anti-inflammatory effect of cranberry juice in an in vitro oral epithelial cell model. The secretion of IL-6 by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated oral epithelial cells exposed to cranberry juice increased proportionally with the deacidification rate. No such effect was observed with respect to the production of IL-8. This study provided evidence that organic acids, just like phenolic compounds, might contribute to the health benefits of cranberry juice against periodontitis.

Identification of Salivary Microorganisms and Metabolites Associated with Halitosis

Halitosis is mainly caused by the action of oral microbes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in salivary microbes and metabolites between subjects with and without halitosis. Of the 52 participants, 22 were classified into the halitosis group by the volatile sulfur compound analysis on breath samples. The 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and metabolomics approaches were used to investigate the difference in microbes and metabolites in saliva of the control and halitosis groups. The profiles of microbiota and metabolites were relatively different between the halitosis and control groups. The relative abundances of Prevotella, Alloprevotella, and Megasphaera were significantly higher in the halitosis group. In contrast, the relative abundances of Streptococcus, Rothia, and Haemophilus were considerably higher in the control group. The levels of 5-aminovaleric acid and n-acetylornithine were significantly higher in the halitosis group. The correlation between identified metabolites and microbiota reveals that Alloprevotella and Prevotella might be related to the cadaverine and putrescine pathways that cause halitosis. This study could provide insight into the mechanisms of halitosis.

Novel oral biomarkers predicting oral malodor

OBJECTIVE

We sought new markers to predict oral malodor.

STUDY DESIGN

Seventy-five adults complaining of oral malodor were classified into 3 groups clinically: no oral malodor, physiologic oral malodor, and periodontitis-derived oral malodor. In addition to conventional clinical parameters, 7 salivary components, occlusal force, and lip-closing force were compared among the groups.

RESULTS

Concerning the salivary components, cariogenic bacteria, occult blood, leukocytes, and ammonia differed significantly among the groups. Multiple logistic regression analyses indicated that tongue-coating scores and ammonia levels were significantly associated with genuine oral malodor, including physiologic oral malodor and periodontitis-derived oral malodor, and the tongue-coating score, plaque index, and occult blood level were significantly associated with periodontitis-derived oral malodor. Occlusal force and lip-closing force did not differ among the groups. However, there was a statistically significant interaction between occlusal force and lip-closing force in oral malodor in women (P = .019).

CONCLUSIONS

Novel salivary markers, ammonia levels, and occult blood levels may predict genuine oral malodor and periodontitis-derived oral malodor, respectively. An interaction effect between occlusal force and lip-closing force on oral malodor was identified in women.

Characterization of oral bacteria in the tongue coating of patients with halitosis using 16S rRNA analysis

There are many studies on the relationship between the tongue coating and halitosis, but few have evaluated the bacterial community present in the tongue coating. This study identified bacteria in the tongue coating in individuals with and without halitosis using 16S rRNA analysis. Forty subjects (mean age, 46.1 ± 15.8 years) who visited the halitosis clinic at the University Dental Hospital between 2016 and 2017 were divided into halitosis (n = 32) and non-halitosis (n = 8) groups according to results from an organoleptic test (OT). Additional measurements via gas chromatography (GC) and the Breathtron® instrument confirmed the groupings as the H₂S, CH₃SH, (CH₃)₂S, and total volatile sulphur compounds (VSC) levels were significantly higher in the halitosis group than in the non-halitosis group. Bacterial diversity was higher in the halitosis group; the median (quartile) values of the Shannon index were 4.46 (4.21, 4.67) in the halitosis group and 3.80 (3.45, 4.30) in the non-halitosis group. Additionally, the median (quartile) values of the Chao-1 index were 84.0 (77.2, 95.0) in the halitosis group and 71.3 (65.0, 81.5) in the non-halitosis group. These differences in bacterial composition and diversity may further the understanding of causes and treatments for halitosis.

The Role of Oral Microbiota in Intra-Oral Halitosis

Halitosis is a common ailment concerning 15% to 60% of the human population. Halitosis can be divided into extra-oral halitosis (EOH) and intra-oral halitosis (IOH). The IOH is formed by volatile compounds, which are produced mainly by anaerobic bacteria. To these odorous substances belong volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), aromatic compounds, amines, short-chain fatty or organic acids, alcohols, aliphatic compounds, aldehydes, and ketones. The most important VSCs are hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and methyl mercaptan. VSCs can be toxic for human cells even at low concentrations. The oral bacteria most related to halitosis are Actinomyces spp., Bacteroides spp., Dialister spp., Eubacterium spp., Fusobacterium spp., Leptotrichia spp., Peptostreptococcus spp., Porphyromonas spp., Prevotella spp., Selenomonas spp., Solobacterium spp., Tannerella forsythia, and Veillonella spp. Most bacteria that cause halitosis are responsible for periodontitis, but they can also affect the development of oral and digestive tract cancers. Malodorous agents responsible for carcinogenesis are hydrogen sulfide and acetaldehyde.

Microbiota and Malodor-Etiology and Management

Accumulating evidence indicates that microbiota plays a critical role in physiological processes in humans. However, it might also contribute to body malodor by producing numerous odorous molecules such as ammonia, volatile sulfur compounds or trimethylamine. Although malodor is commonly overlooked by physicians, it constitutes a major problem for many otherwise healthy people. Thus, this review aims to investigate most common causes of malodor and describe potential therapeutic options. We searched PUBMED and Google Scholar databases to identify the clinical and pre-clinical studies on bad body smell, malodor, halitosis and microbiota. Unpleasant smell might originate from the mouth, skin, urine or reproductive fluids and is usually caused by odorants that are produced by resident bacterial flora. The accumulation of odorous compounds might result from diet, specific composition of microbiota, as well as compromised function of the liver, intestines and kidneys. Evidence-based guidelines for management of body malodor are lacking and no universal treatment exists. However, the alleviation of the symptoms may be achieved by controlling the diet and physical elimination of bacteria and/or accumulated odorants.

Targeted polymerase chain reaction-based expression of putative halitogenic bacteria and volatile sulphur compound analysis among halitosis patients at a tertiary hospital in Nigeria

Halitosis (bad breath) can be a cause of anxiety, depression and psychosocial stress, with pathological changes in the oral microbiota playing an important role in its development. Despite its prevalence, studies on the microbiology of halitosis are rare in Nigeria. This study determines the presence of five putative periodontal pathogens viz: Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia and Treponema denticola on the tongue dorsa of halitosis and non-halitosis patients using a 16S rDNA-directed polymerase chain reaction assay. Furthermore, an association of these bacteria with oral malodour [as assessed by volatile sulphur compounds (VSC) measurements] with a portable sulphide monitor, the Halimeter (Interscan Corp, Chatsworth, California), was performed. The results showed that the prevalence of halitosis in this environment as defined by VSC level above 160 ppb is 14.9%. Halitosis is affected by gender with males having it more than the females. Males also tend to present more with self-reported complaints of halitosis than females. Age does not appear to contribute to the incidence of halitosis. Fusobacterium nucleatum, P. gingivalis, P. intermedia are responsible for increased production of VSCs in halitosis patients while A. actinomycetemcomitans and T. denticola appear to play no part in the production of VSCs. Evaluation of halitogenic bacteria and VSCs may potentially become a surrogate biomarker for monitoring halitosis. Targeted assessment of putative halitogenic bacteria may provide a rapid point-of-care diagnostic tool for halitosis.

In vitro evaluation of the effects of Ultrasound Tongue Scraper on bacteria and biofilm formation

AIM

Oral malodor is a common condition caused by some Gram-negative oral bacteria, among which are the 3 red complex bacteria (RCB). The present study investigated the effectiveness of the Ultrasound Tongue Scraper (UTS) to disrupt the structural morphology of the bacteria and their biofilm.

METHODS

While developing over 72 hours, multispecies biofilms of RCB (Porphromonas gingivalis, Tryponema denticola, Tannerella forsythia) were treated every 24 hours with 1.6-MHz ultrasound waves generated with UTS. An untreated group served as controls. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to determine the biofilm thickness, biomass and live : dead cell ratio at each time point (24, 48 and 72 hours). Biofilm morphology and bacteria ultrastructure were viewed using scanning/transmission electron microscopy, respectively. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and Tukey tests.

RESULTS

At each time point, the 3 variables were significantly lower in treated samples than the untreated. Significant biofilm disruption was observed in treated samples at each time period while the untreated had intact biofilm morphology. Cells in treated samples showed disrupted cell wall, cytoplasmic material, huge vacuoles and heterogeneity in electron density, while these cell organelles remained intact in untreated samples.

CONCLUSION

The UTS has an inhibitory effect on RCB and could be useful for oral malodor management.

Tongue coating in relationship to gender, plaque, gingivitis and tongue cleaning behaviour in systemically healthy young adults

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this observational study was to investigate the relationship between tongue coating (thickness [Tc] and surface discoloration [Td]) and gender, plaque, gingivitis (bleeding on marginal probing [BOMP] and bleeding on pocket probing [BOPP]) and tongue cleaning behaviour.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 336 participants were screened for this cross-sectional study, from which 268 (150 male, 118 female) were found to be eligible. Aspects of tongue coating were visually assessed. Additionally, BOMP, BOPP and the plaque index (PI) were scored. To ascertain the tongue cleaning behaviour, the Oral Hygiene Behavior questionnaire was used.

RESULTS

Most tongue coating was found at the posterior sections of the tongue surface. A thin coating and white discoloration were most prevalent as highest score for both males (92.7%) and females (87.4%), as well as white discoloration for the whole group of participants (50.2%). A gender difference was observed for TC and Td (P < .001). Analysis did not reveal a relationship between Tc and PI and between Td and PI. Also, no relation was detected between tongue cleaning behaviour and Tc or Td. However, tongue cleaning was associated with lower BOMP and BOPP scores.

CONCLUSION

BOMP, BOPP or PI score did not appear to be linked to Tc and Td. A significant gender difference was found for Tc and Td. Self-reported tongue cleaning behaviour was associated with slightly lower BOMP and BOPP scores.

Improved antibacterial effects of alkali-transformed saponin from quinoa husks against halitosis-related bacteria

Background

Quinoa is a food crop native to the Andes. The process of dehulling quinoa can produce approximately 8–12% husk, which is often discarded because it contains bitter saponin. Saponin derived from quinoa has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory and antifungal activity. However, the antibacterial effects of quinoa saponin against halitosis-related bacteria are still unclear.

Methods

In this study, quinoa saponin (QS) and alkali-transformed saponin (ATS) were separated by AB-2 resin to obtain QS-30, QS-80, ATS-30 and ATS-80. Halitosis-related bacteria included Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) and Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum). The MIC and MBC were determined using gradient dilutions in 96-well plates, and the saponins were identified by HPLC and mass spectrometry. The changes in membrane integrity were tested using a microplate reader, the membrane potential was tested by spectrofluorometry, and the morphological characteristics were examined using a transmission electron microscope to explore the antibacterial mechanisms.

Results

Antibacterial assays indicated that QS-80 and ATS-80 showed inhibitory activity. In addition, ATS-80 exerted a stronger inhibitory effect than QS-80, especially against Fusobacterium nucleatum, with a lower minimum inhibitory concentration (31.3 μg/mL) and a lower minimum bactericidal concentration (125 μg/mL). ATS-80 destroyed the bacterial membrane structure, leading to bacterial death.

Conclusions

Based on the excellent antibacterial activity and economic prospects of quinoa husk, ATS-80 could be used as an antibacterial agent to treat halitosis.

BAX Gene Overexpression in the Tongue Could Warn of Infection Risk due to Periodontal Pathogens

Background:

Different host proteins play a central role in cell response during bacterial infections, the Bcl-2-Associated X protein (BAX) and Vascular Cell Adhesion Protein 1 (VCAM-1) are often reported in infective primary events during cell injury.

Objective:

The aim of this study is to evaluate the predictive value of these two proteins as biomarkers of oral bacterial infection, with particular emphasis on the tongue, which plays an important role in microbial homeostasis in the mouth.

Methods:

Twenty-nine patients were recruited and divided according to the Periodontal Index (CPI), 4 of them were severely compromised periodontal patients. Oral hygiene, gingival tissues and plaque presence were evaluated clinically. The laboratory analysis carried out on tongue tissue included: total bacterial genomes, proportion of specific periopathogens and BAX -VCAM-1 expression rate, while Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) were measured in saliva.

Results:

Neither tongue microbiological status nor salivary ROS level corresponded with the state of disease. VCAM-1 mRNA expression rate was comparable in all patients but, on the contrary, BAX expression resulted high in periodontally-compromised patients and appears related to periodontal status in the analyzed subjects.

Conclusion:

This preliminary work suggests that the BAX protein is a possible candidate in a prognostic marker study for oral diseases started by periodontal bacteria. For example, none of the evaluated clinical and microbiological parameters could predict the presence, prognosis or recurrence of periodontal diseases. This biomarker could be a valuable tool in determining the risk, diagnosis and prognosis of this human illness.

Effects of French Pine Bark Extract Chewing Gum on Oral Malodor and Salivary Bacteria

Frequent or persistent malodor (halitosis) represents a considerable embarrassment to those affected. French pine bark extract, Pycnogenol^® (PYC), has displayed antibacterial activity against a broad range of bacterial species. In the present study, anticipated benefits of PYC on diminishing halitosis were investigated. Ten healthy males and 11 females, aged 40.1±12.3 y, were recruited based on threshold breath sulfur compounds presence, diagnosed by portable gas chromatography. Subjects were randomly assigned to either sugar-free gums, or gums bearing an additional 2.5 mg PYC per piece. The subjects were required to consume two pieces of PYC or placebo gum six times daily for 15 min. The levels of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), measured by OralChroma^TM, and tongue-coating score were recorded at baseline, 2, and 4 wk. Hydrogen sulfide-producing bacteria in saliva were cultured on Brucella blood agar plates containing 0.05% cysteine, 0.12% glutathione, and 0.02% lead acetate. The group consuming PYC chewing gum reduced exhaled hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide significantly (p<0.01) after 2 wk versus baseline. Continuation of daily PYC-gum consumption for 4 wk remarkably lowered the tongue-coating score and exhaled hydrogen sulfide was significantly decreased compared to the placebo group. PYC chewing gum significantly reduced hydrogen sulfide-producing bacteria in saliva after 4 wk (p<0.01), with no effects observed in the placebo control. The results suggest that PYC chewing gum is effective in reducing oral malodor by decreasing the accumulation of tongue coating and the number of hydrogen sulfide-producing bacteria in saliva.

Efficacy of chlorine dioxide mouthwash in reducing oral malodor: A 2-week randomized, double-blind, crossover study

The aim of this clinical trial was to assess the inhibitory effects of a mouthwash containing 0.1% ClO2 used for 2 weeks on oral malodor, periodontal and salivary parameters, tongue coating, and Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in saliva. Thirty-nine subjects with oral malodor were randomly assigned into two groups. In the first stage, one group was instructed to rinse with the experimental mouthwash (containing 0.1% ClO2), whereas the other group was instructed to rinse with the control mouthwash (sodium chloride 0.9%) for 2 weeks. After 4 weeks of washing out, in the second stage, each group then used the other mouthwash for 2 weeks. Oral malodor, periodontal status, tongue coating, salivary pH and flow rate, and the amounts of the salivary bacteria Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Solobacterium moorei, Streptococcus salivarius, Treponema denticola, and Tannerella forsythia were evaluated at baseline and after 2 weeks of mouthwash use. After 12 hr and after 2 weeks, organoleptic scores and the levels of H2S and CH3SH were significantly lower in the experimental group compared with those in the control group. After 2 weeks, the experimental mouthwash appeared significantly effective in reducing plaque index, tongue-coating score, and the amounts of F. nucleatum, S. moorei, T. denticola, and T. forsythia in the whole saliva, compared with those at baseline. Mouthwash containing 0.1% ClO2 is effective in reducing oral malodor, dental plaque, tongue-coating accumulation, and the amounts of F. nucleatum, S. moorei, T. denticola, and T. forsythia in saliva.

The effect of professional tooth cleaning or non-surgical periodontal therapy on oral halitosis in patients with periodontal diseases. A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review was to give the best available evidence on the impact of professional tooth cleaning (PTC) and scaling and root planing (SRP) on oral halitosis in patients with periodontal diseases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Three databases were screened for relevant studies. Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or controlled clinical trials (CCT) were included. The primary outcome in all included studies was volatile sulphur compounds (VSC) measured by Halimeter or OralChroma and organoleptic scores as secondary outcome. Only studies investigating healthy adults except for periodontitis or gingivitis were included. The considered intervention strategies were professional tooth cleaning and non-surgical periodontal treatment. For both strategies, additional oral hygiene instructions (OHI) were possible. Two independent reviewers performed the study selection and quality assessment.

SEARCH RESULTS

After abstract and title screening and subsequent full-text reading of potential papers, a placebo-controlled RCT could not be found. However, eight studies or particular arms used PTC or SRP as sole interventions and were included in this review. All trials or study arms included showed a positive effect on VSC levels or organoleptic scores after intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on best available evidence, PTC and SRP in combination with oral hygiene instructions reduced VSC values in patients with oral halitosis and/or periodontal diseases, independent of tongue cleaning and the use of mouth rinses.

The impact of chewing gum on halitosis parameters: a systematic review

This study aimed to analyze the impact of chewing gum on halitosis parameters. Three databases were searched with the following focused question: 'Can chewing gum additionally reduce halitosis parameters, such as organoleptic scores and volatile sulfur compounds (VSC), when compared to a control treatment'? Controlled clinical trials presenting at least two halitosis measurements (organoleptic scores and/or VSC) were included. Ten studies were included, and different active ingredients were used. One study was performed using a chewing gum without any active ingredient. Chewing gum containing probiotic bacterium was shown to significantly reduce the organoleptic scores. Chewing gums containing zinc acetate and magnolia bark extract as well as allylisothiocyanate (AITC) with zinc lactate significantly reduced the levels of VSC in comparison to a placebo chewing gum. Furthermore, a sodium bicarbonate-containing chewing gum significantly reduced the VSC levels in comparison to rinsing with water. Furthermore, eucalyptus-extract chewing gum showed significant reductions in both organoleptic scores and VSC when compared with a control chewing gum. Chewing gum containing sucrose was able to reduce the VSC levels, in comparison to xylitol and zinc citrate chewing gum, but only for 5 min. It was concluded that chewing gums containing probiotics Lactobaccilus, zinc acetate and magnolia bark extract, eucalyptus-extract, and AITC with zinc lactate may be suitable for halitosis management. However, the low number of included studies and the high heterogeneity among the selected studies may limit the clinical applications of these findings.

Factors Associated with Halitosis in White-Collar Employees in Shanghai, China

Objective

To investigate the factors associated with halitosis in Chinese white-collar employees.

Materials and Methods

Subjects in three randomly selected office buildings in Shanghai, China, were enrolled in this cross-sectional study using cluster random sampling. Oral malodor was assessed by measuring volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) with a portable sulfide monitor. Subjects’ oral health, including dental caries, periodontal status, and tongue coating, was evaluated clinically. A questionnaire was used to obtain information about participants’ demographic characteristics, oral hygiene habits, and health behaviors.

Results

Of the 805 subjects invited to participate in this study, 720 were enrolled (89.4% response rate). Data from these subjects were used for statistical analyses. The prevalence of halitosis was 33.2%. In the final regression model, halitosis was significantly related to tongue coating thickness, periodontal pocket depth, no food consumption within 2 hours prior to oral examination, and less intake frequency of sweet foods.

Conclusions

In this Chinese white-collar population, tongue coating and periodontal disease were associated with halitosis. Oral hygiene education should be provided at the population level to encourage the maintenance of oral health and fresh breath. Consumption of sweet foods may reduce VSC production, although this finding requires further investigation.

Self-perceived halitosis and oral hygiene habits among undergraduate dental students

Background:

Halitosis or oral malodor is characterized by unpleasant odor arising from the oral cavity. The prevalence of halitosis however is not studied extensively. The aim of this study was to evaluate the self perception of oral malodor and oral hygiene habits amongst dental students.

Materials and Methods:

A structured questionnaire consisting of ten questions was administered to 285 undergraduate students of Madha Dental College and Hospital. The questionnaire was designed to evaluate the self perception of halitosis, oral hygiene aids used, presence of dental caries, gingival bleeding, and dryness of mouth.

Results:

Of the 285 students, 259 students completed the questionnaire. The response rate was 90%, with male response rate being 85.7% and female 95.8%. Self-perceived halitosis was reported by 44.1% males and 45.32% females. The difference in reporting self-perception of halitosis between females and males was found to be statistically significant (P < 0.05). Significant difference was found for use of mouth wash, presence of carious teeth, bleeding gums, and use of tongue cleaners between females and males (P < 0.05).

Conclusion:

The results of this study indicate higher prevalence of halitosis among this population consisting of dental students. The awareness of halitosis was also higher among this population. The awareness of halitosis as an individual entity should be promoted to the general population and the therapeutic measures should be made available to all.

An evaluation of microbial profile in halitosis with tongue coating using PCR (polymerase chain reaction)- a clinical and microbiological study

BACKGROUND

Medline search using key words halitosis, tongue coating, polymerase chain reaction, microbial profile did not reveal any study. Hence, the purpose of the present investigation was to assess the malodor using the organoleptic method and tanita device; to quantify odoriferous microorganisms using Polymerase Chain Reaction technique in chronic periodontitis patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study included 30 chronic periodontitis patients. Halitosis was detected using organoleptic assessment & tanita breath alert. Microbial analysis of Pg, Tf & Fn was done using PCR. Plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), gingival bleeding index (GBI) were recorded.

RESULT

The maximum score of 3 for tongue coating was found in 60% of selected subjects. The tanita breath alert measured VSC level of score 2 in 60% of selected subjects while organoleptic score of 4 was found in 50% of subjects. The maximum mean value of 31.1±36.5 was found to be of F. nucleatum (Fn) followed by P. gingivalis (Pg) (13±13.3) & T. forsythia (Tf) (7.16±8.68) in tongue samples of selected patients. A weak positive correlation was found between VSC levels (tanita score & organoleptic score) and clinical parameters.

CONCLUSION

The halitosis assessment by measuring VSC levels using organoleptic method and tanita breath alert are clinically feasible. Maximum tongue coating was found in 60% of patients. Fn was found comparatively more than the Pg & Tf. A weak positive correlation was found between VSC levels and clinical parameters such as PI, GI & GBI. Thus,the dentist/ periodontist should emphasise on tongue cleaning measures that would reduce the odoriferous microbial load.

Relationship between halitosis and periodontal disease - associated oral bacteria in tongue coatings

AIM

The objective of our study was to investigate the relationship between halitosis and oral bacteria in tongue coating (TC) and saliva samples from patients with halitosis, and to evaluate the effect of tongue cleaning on halitosis.

METHODS

Ninety-four participants complaining of oral malodour were included in the study. Organoleptic (OR) values, volatile sulphur compound (VSC) concentrations determined by gas chromatography and TC scores were used as clinical parameters of halitosis. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions were used to determine the numbers of periodontal disease-associated oral bacteria.

RESULTS

There was a significant correlation between TC scores and OR values, methylmercaptan (CH3 SH) concentrations and VSC concentrations (Spearman's rank-correlation coefficient test, P < 0.01). There was also a positive correlation between the clinical parameters of halitosis and total bacterial numbers and Prevotella intermedia, Fusobacterium nucleatum and Campylobacter rectus concentrations in the TC samples. However, there was no similar correlation with respect to the saliva samples. The participants were sub-divided into two groups based on whether they had the habit of tongue cleaning or not. The participants with the habit of tongue cleaning had significantly lower OR scores, VSC concentrations and P. intermedia, F. nucleatum and C. rectus levels than the other participants (Mann-Whitney U-test, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that periodontal disease-associated oral bacteria in TCs are closely related to halitosis and that tongue cleaning may be an effective method for improving halitosis.

Halitosis: From diagnosis to management

Halitosis is formed by volatile molecules which are caused because of pathological or nonpathological reasons and it originates from an oral or a non-oral source. It is very common in general population and nearly more than 50% of the general population have halitosis. Although halitosis has multifactorial origins, the source of 90% cases is oral cavity such as poor oral hygiene, periodontal disease, tongue coat, food impaction, unclean dentures, faulty restorations, oral carcinomas, and throat infections. Halitosis affects a person's daily life negatively, most of people who complain about halitosis refer to the clinic for treatment but in some of the people who can suffer from halitosis, there is no measurable halitosis. There are several methods to determine halitosis. Halitosis can be treated if its etiology can be detected rightly. The most important issue for treatment of halitosis is detection etiology or determination its source by detailed clinical examination. Management may include simple measures such as scaling and root planning, instructions for oral hygiene, tongue cleaning, and mouth rinsing. The aim of this review was to describe the etiological factors, prevalence data, diagnosis, and the therapeutic mechanical and chemical approaches related to halitosis.

Factors affecting oral malodor in periodontitis and gingivitis patients

AIM

To examine the associations between oral health status, the presence of N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide-positive bacteria, and oral malodor in periodontal patients.

METHODS

A total of 137 periodontitis and 80 gingivitis patients were included in the study. Oral malodor was measured by an organoleptic test and the OralChroma. An oral examination was conducted, including the assessment of decayed teeth, periodontal status, and tongue coating. The presence of N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide-positive bacteria in the subgingiva, tongue coating, and saliva was evaluated by the N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide test.

RESULTS

In the periodontitis group, oral malodor was significantly correlated with decayed teeth, periodontal parameters, and tongue coating. Among the N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide test parameters, the highest correlation of oral malodor was found with N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide subgingiva, followed by N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide tongue coating and N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide saliva. In the gingivitis group, oral malodor was significantly correlated with the plaque index, bleeding on probing, and tongue coating. Among the N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide test parameters, the highest correlation of oral malodor was found with N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide tongue coating, followed by N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide saliva and N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide subgingiva.

CONCLUSION

Dental plaque, bleeding on probing, tongue coating, and N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide-positive bacteria contribute to oral malodor, but with different degrees in periodontitis and gingivitis patients.

Association between oral malodour and periodontal disease-related parameters in the general population

AIM

To determine the association between halitosis detection and periodontal status in systemically healthy non-smokers and to assess whether halitosis was related to quantities of Fusobacterium nucleatum and Porphyromonas gingivalis on the tongue dorsum.

METHODS

Periodontal examinations, tongue coating determination, Halimeter® readings and organoleptic assessments of mouth odour were performed in 28 chronic periodontitis patients, 23 chronic gingivitis patients and 27 healthy individuals. The quantities of P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum were determined in tongue specimens by real-time PCR.

RESULTS

Halitosis was more likely to be detected in patients with periodontitis (OR = 9.2) and gingivitis (OR = 4.6) than in healthy subjects. The posterior tongue odour was similar for all groups; had the highest score of all organoleptic assessments and was significantly correlated with Halimeter® scores and the odour of the whole mouth air. Periodontitis patients harboured significantly greater amounts of P. gingivalis on their tongue, yet similar quantities of F. nucleatum compared to gingivitis patients and healthy subjects. The amount of P. gingivalis residing on the tongue dorsum of periodontitis patients was significantly associated with halitosis recordings, while the amount of F. nucleatum was related to tongue coating in healthy controls, which corroborates its role in biofilm formation.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with periodontal disease were at higher risk for halitosis detection than healthy individuals. The posterior portion of the tongue dorsum seems to be an important source of odourous compounds, regardless of periodontal condition. P. gingivalis residing on the tongue of periodontitis patients may play a key role in oral malodour production.

Comparison between self-estimated and clinical oral malodor

OBJECTIVES

The aims were to evaluate the validity of patients' self-estimation and clinical diagnosis of oral malodor and to examine the relationship of oral malodor with oral health status.

METHODS

The subjects were 252 patients (mean age 43.7 ± 10.7 years) who complained of oral malodor. Oral malodor was assessed by patients' self-estimation, organoleptic test and Oral Chroma. Oral health status, including dental and periodontal conditions, oral hygiene status and flow rate of saliva, was examined. The N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-napthilamide (BANA) positive bacteria in tongue coating were evaluated by BANA test. A Spearman's correlation coefficient was used to test correlation between self-perceived and clinical oral malodor. The stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to assess predictors of patients' self-estimated and clinical oral malodor.

RESULTS

The percentage of patients who were diagnosed with pseudo-halitosis was 38.5%. Patients' self-estimated oral malodor was significantly correlated with organoleptic test (r = 0.61), H(2)S (r = 0.50) and CH(3)SH (r = 0.46). There were 47.1% of patients who estimated correctly their oral malodor's scores with those by examiner. The highest correspondence was found in patients without oral malodor (52.6%), followed by in those with moderate or strong oral malodor (46.7%) and in those with slight oral malodor (33.3%). The significant predictors of patients' self-estimated and clinical oral malodor were bleeding on probing, tongue coating, BANA test and flow rate of saliva.

CONCLUSION

Patients' self-estimated oral malodor was found to correspond significantly with clinical oral malodor and be associated with oral health status. Current findings suggest that self-estimation can be used to judge one's own oral malodor.

Daily variation of oral malodour and related factors in community-dwelling elderly Thai

OBJECTIVES

The purposes of this study were (i) to estimate the prevalence of oral malodour, (ii) to evaluate the daily variation of oral malodour and (iii) to assess associations of volatile sulphur compound (VSC) concentrations with socio-demographics, health behaviours and oral health status in community-dwelling elderly Thai.

METHODS

The subjects were 428 dentate elderly people (67.6 ± 5.6 years) living in Phitsaulok, Thailand. Information on their socio-demographics, general health and health behaviours was obtained by a questionnaire. Their dental condition, periodontal status and tongue coating were clinically examined. Their flow rates and the pH of unstimulated saliva were also assessed. Oral malodour was measured at four different times of day using an Oral Chroma™.

RESULTS

The proportions of subjects diagnosed with oral malodour using the thresholds of H(2)S, CH(3)SH and (CH(3))(2) S were 60.5%, 62.9% and 80.7%, respectively. Concentrations of H(2)S showed significant daily variation. Linear regression analysis demonstrated the following significant associations: (i) oral malodour from H(2)S and thickness of the tongue coating, (ii) oral malodour from CH(3)SH and periodontal pocket depth of 5 mm or more and the presence of gingival bleeding and (iii) oral malodour from (CH(3))(2)S and systemic disease, medications and thickness of the tongue coating.

DISCUSSION

Oral malodour was shown to be prevalent among the elderly. Daily variation was observed in the concentration of H(2)S. Tongue coating, periodontal disease, systemic diseases and medications were related to oral malodour. Therefore, these factors should be taken into consideration in oral malodour treatment and prevention programmes for the elderly.

The relationship between physiologic halitosis and periodontopathic bacteria of the tongue and gingival sulcus

To determine the influence of oral status on halitosis, the relationship between halitosis and periodontopathic bacteria present in plaque on the tongue and the subgingival sulcus was examined in 62 periodontally healthy adults. Halitosis indicators used were the organoleptic score; gas chromatography results [total volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) = H(2)S + CH(3)SH + (CH(3))(2)S]; Halimeter values; and the results of three clinical tests, plaque control record (PlCR), plaque index (PlI), and tongue coat status. Significant correlations with organoleptic scores was observed for PlCR, PlI, tongue coat status, VSC amounts, and Halimeter values, indicating that halitosis in periodontally healthy subjects tended to originate from tongue plaque deposits. Polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to detect six periodontopathic bacteria (Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, Tannerella forsythensis, and Treponema denticola) from the tongue and subgingival plaque. Significant effects on the organoleptic scores, tongue coat status, total VSC, H(2)S and CH(3)SH amounts, and Halimeter values were observed only for T. denticola and F. nucleatum and only in the tongue plaque, not in the subgingival plaque. Thus, therapies developed to inhibit the growth of these bacteria may lead to future treatments of halitosis.

Effects of a mouthwash with chlorine dioxide on oral malodor and salivary bacteria: a randomized placebo-controlled 7-day trial

Background

Previous research has shown the oxidizing properties and microbiological efficacies of chlorine dioxide (ClO₂). Its clinical efficacies on oral malodor have been evaluated and reported only in short duration trials, moreover, no clinical studies have investigated its microbiological efficacies on periodontal and malodorous bacteria. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the inhibitory effects of a mouthwash containing ClO₂ used for 7 days on morning oral malodor and on salivary periodontal and malodorous bacteria.

Methods/Design

A randomized, double blind, crossover, placebo-controlled trial was conducted among 15 healthy male volunteers, who were divided into 2 groups. Subjects were instructed to rinse with the experimental mouthwash containing ClO₂ or the placebo mouthwash, without ClO₂, twice per day for 7 days. After a one week washout period, each group then used the opposite mouthwash for 7 days. At baseline and after 7 days, oral malodor was evaluated with Organoleptic measurement (OM), and analyzed the concentrations of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), methyl mercaptan (CH₃SH) and dimethyl sulfide ((CH₃)₂S), the main VSCs of human oral malodor, were assessed by gas chromatography (GC). Clinical outcome variables included plaque and gingival indices, and tongue coating index. The samples of saliva were microbiologically investigated. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed using the polymerase chain reaction-Invader method.

Results and Discussion

The baseline oral condition in healthy subjects in the 2 groups did not differ significantly. After rinsing with the mouthwash containing ClO₂ for 7 days, morning bad breath decreased as measured by the OM and reduced the concentrations of H₂S, CH₃SH and (CH₃)₂S measured by GC, were found. Moreover ClO₂ mouthwash used over a 7-day period appeared effective in reducing plaque, tongue coating accumulation and the counts of Fusobacterium nucleatum in saliva. Future research is needed to examine long-term effects, as well as effects on periodontal diseases and plaque accumulation in a well-defined sample of halitosis patients and broader population samples.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00748943