Acute effects of a low-dose atropine/scopolamine mixture as a food contaminant in human volunteers

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids and tropane alkaloids in milk samples from individual dairy farms of the German federal states of Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein

1,2-Dehydro-pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), their corresponding N-oxides (PANO) and tropane alkaloids (TA), are toxic plant metabolites. If plant material, containing these toxins, is present in the feed of dairy cows these toxins can be transferred into milk. Here, milk was sampled directly from dairy farms in the German federal states of Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein in 2020-2022 in order to investigate a possible contamination of milk at the production stage. In total, 228 milk samples were analysed for 54 PA/PANO and two TA by a sensitive LC-ESI-MS/MS method. In addition, a subset of milk samples (n = 85) was independently analysed for TA by a cooperating laboratory for verification. PA/PANO were found in 26 samples (11%) with a low median sum content of the contaminated samples of 0.024 µg/L. The highest level of contamination was 5.6 µg/L. Senecionine-, lycopsamine- and heliotrine-type PA/PANO were detected. In four samples (1.8%), atropine was determined up to 0.066 µg/L. The toxin levels in the milk samples hardly contributed to the total daily exposure. These data are first-time results on contamination rates and levels occurring in milk from individual dairy farms, based on a large sample number.

Assessment of tropane alkaloid levels in Brazilian buckwheat flour products: A novel LC-UHPLC-MS/MS approach using solid-liquid extraction at low temperature

In recent years, the monitoring of tropane alkaloids, specifically hyoscyamine and scopolamine, in food has become a pressing concern. This is due to increasing reports of food contamination with these compounds worldwide, raising awareness about the potential risks associated with their consumption. A novel method is proposed here for the determination of the sum of (+)-hyoscyamine, (-)-hyoscyamine, and (-)-scopolamine in buckwheat-based matrices, using solid-liquid extraction at low temperature and quantification by bidimensional chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The validated method presented a linear response in the concentration range of 2.5-15 μg kg-1 (r > 0.99). The precision and accuracy were in the ranges from 0.8 to 11.0 % and from 96 to 103 %, respectively. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 2.5 μg kg-1. No contamination was found at levels above the LOQ in any of the 18 samples analyzed (buckwheat flour, grains, and gluten-free mix).

Occurrence and health risk assessment of tropane alkaloids in cereal foods consumed in Korea

Tropane alkaloids (TA) are natural toxins found in certain plants, including cereals, of which atropine and scopolamine are the main species of concern due to their acute toxicity. This study aimed to determine the occurrence of TA in cereal foods and assess the potential health risks associated with their consumption in Korea. TA levels were analyzed in 80 raw and 71 processed cereal samples, which were distributed throughout Korea in 2021, using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. At least one of the six TA species, namely atropine, scopolamine, pseudotropine, tropinone, scopine, and 6-hydroxytropinone, was detected in 10 out of the 151 samples at levels ranging from 0.12 to 88.10 μg kg-1. Dietary exposure (mean, 0.23 ng kg-1 bw day-1) to atropine and scopolamine in the Korean population was estimated to be low across all age groups. This is despite considering worst-case scenarios using the total concentrations of atropine and scopolamine in a millet sample, both of which were detected, and 95th percentile consumption for consumers of millet only. Both the hazard index and margin of exposure methods indicated that the current levels of TA exposure from millet consumption were unlikely to pose significant health risks to the Korean population.

Health concerns associated to tropane alkaloids in maize food products in Serbia

Following the implementation of the European regulation limiting the presence of tropane alkaloids in certain foods, a survey was conducted in Serbia on 103 maize products (grits, polenta and semolina) to determine atropine and scopolamine content using liquid chromatography with tandem-mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS/MS). The probability of exceeding the Acute Reference Dose (ARfD; 0.016 μg/kg bw/day) of the sum of atropine and scopolamine by consuming these products was tested. Overall, across age categories - children, younger and older adolescents, and adults, the group ARfD was exceeded by 21.4%, 17.5%, 11.7% and 11.7% of the samples, with maximum exposure reaching as much as 19-, 13-, 9- and 9-fold the group ARfD, respectively. Nevertheless, polenta could be the most favorable dietary option (17.9% of positive samples, 7.7% resulting in excessive exposure in children, reaching a maximum of 1.4-fold the group ARfD). According to the reported findings, adverse health effects of tropane alkaloids cannot be ruled out. The Margin of Exposure, founded on a clinically significant acute effects dose established by FAO/WHO, ranged from 1194 to 2381 (mean) and from 28 to 56 (95th percentile) across age categories. These estimates should certainly draw the attention of food authorities and nutritionist, particularly in the case of highly sensitive populations with contraindications and high consumers of corn products, such as coeliac patients.

Emerging Issues on Tropane Alkaloid Contamination of Food in Europe

The occurrence of tropane alkaloids (TAs), toxic plant metabolites, in food in Europe was studied to identify those TAs in food most relevant for human health. Information was extracted from the literature and the 2016 study from the European Food Safety Authority. Calystegines were identified as being inherent TAs in foods common in Europe, such as Solanum tuberosum (potato), S. melongena (eggplant, aubergine), Capsicum annuum (bell pepper) and Brassica oleracea (broccoli, Brussels sprouts). In addition, some low-molecular-weight tropanes and Convolvulaceae-type TAs were found inherent to bell pepper. On the other hand, atropine, scopolamine, convolvine, pseudotropine and tropine were identified as emerging TAs resulting from the presence of associated weeds in food. The most relevant food products in this respect are unprocessed and processed cereal-based foods for infants, young children or adults, dry (herbal) teas and canned or frozen vegetables. Overall, the occurrence data on both inherent as well as on associated TAs in foods are still scarce, highlighting the need for monitoring data. It also indicates the urge for food safety authorities to work with farmers, plant breeders and food business operators to prevent the spreading of invasive weeds and to increase awareness.

Atropine and Scopolamine in Maize Products from the Retail Stores in the Republic of Serbia

The cereal grains, which represent the cultivated grasses fruits, supply almost half of the total caloric requirements for humans and provide more nourishment compared with any other class of the food. Out of many cereals used for food, maize, rice, and wheat are the most important food resources for humans, representing 94% of the total cereals consumption. According to the data of the Republic Institute of Statistics for the year 2018, the harvested areas of corn amount to 906,753 hectares. The production of about 7 million tons was achieved with an average yield of 7.7 t/ha according to the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Serbia. Serbia is still among the ten largest exporters of wheat and corn in the world for the period of 2014/15–2017/18. More precisely, it ranks seventh in the export of corn. Utilization of maize products for food animal nutrition (1000 t) is 491,48, and for industrial processing (1000 t) 278,862 expressed as the total consumption (1000 t) is 769,910. Therefore, a total of 103 samples of maize products were analyzed for the presence of toxins, i.e., tropane alkaloids (TAs). The samples were collected from the retail stores in the Republic of Serbia in 2021 and analyzed for the presence of atropine and scopolamine (33 corn grits, 39 polenta, and 31 semolina samples). Therefore, the Recommendation 2015/976/EU on the monitoring of TAs in food was adopted by the EU Commission to obtain more occurrence data on TAs in food. The monitoring extent, however, is restricted because reliable analytical methods and appropriate sensitivity are limited. There was a limit of 1 g/kg for each atropine and scopolamine in cereals containing millet, sorghum, buckwheat, or their derivatives. All the samples were analyzed by the LC-MS/MS. The LOQ was set at 1.0 μg/kg. Out of the total 103 tested samples, 32 samples (31.1%) were contaminated with atropine and scopolamine in concentrations above the LOQ. The highest concentrations of the studied TAs were observed in a semolina sample-atropine: 58.80 μg/kg, scopolamine: 10.20 μg/kg. The obtained results indicate that the TAs concentrations are above the LOQ which can be considered potential human and animal health hazards.

Assessment of the Conclusions of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Tropane Alkaloids

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was requested to assess the differences in the outcome of the risk assessment of tropane alkaloids (TAs) in food between the CONTAM Panel and the Joint FAO/WHO meeting (FAO/WHO) and to conclude if an update of the EFSA opinion on tropane alkaloids in food and feed would be appropriate. TAs are secondary metabolites occurring in several plants. The main TAs considered in the assessments of EFSA and FAO/WHO were (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine, which exert their pharmacological and toxicological effects by acting as competitive antagonists of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Both EFSA and FAO/WHO considered a study in human volunteers as the key study to assess the effects of TAs. The CONTAM Panel established a group acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.016 μg/kg body weight (bw) for the sum of (-)-hyoscyamine and (-)-scopolamine, based on decreased heart rate. FAO/WHO concluded that it was not possible to establish an ARfD and instead selected a point of departure of 1.54 μg/kg bw for the sum of the two substances, based on decreased salivary secretion, and applied it in a margin of exposure approach. A detailed assessment of the differences in the two approaches is provided in the report. Overall, it is not straightforward to compare quantitatively the differences emerging from the assessments of the CONTAM Panel and the FAO/WHO, in view of the different approaches applied and the different scopes of the assessments. Given the existing uncertainties, the ARfD established by the CONTAM Panel should be retained without modifications as protective towards the general population including susceptible subgroups. In conclusion, based on the comparison with the FAO/WHO assessment, an update of the CONTAM Panel assessment on the risks to human health related to the presence of tropane alkaloids in food is not considered necessary.

Opinion on the impact of non-monotonic dose responses on EFSA's human health risk assessments

This Opinion assesses the biological relevance of the non-monotonic dose responses (NMDR) identified in a previous EFSA External Report (Beausoleil et al., 2016) produced under GP/EFSA/SCER/2014/01 and the follow-up probabilistic assessment (Chevillotte et al., 2017a,b), focusing on the in vivo data sets fulfilling most of the checkpoints of the visual/statistical-based analysis identified in Beausoleil et al. (2016). The evaluation was completed with cases discussed in EFSA assessments and the update of the scientific literature. Observations of NMDR were confirmed in certain studies and are particularly relevant for receptor-mediated effects. Based on the results of the evaluation, the Opinion proposes an approach to be applied during the risk assessment process when apparent non-monotonicity is observed, also providing advice on specific elements to be considered to facilitate the assessment of NMDR in EFSA risk assessments. The proposed approach was applied to two case studies, Bisphenol A and bis(2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and these evaluations are reported in dedicated annexes. Considering the potential impact of NMDRs in regulatory risk assessment, the Scientific Committee recommends a concerted international effort on developing internationally agreed guidance and harmonised frameworks for identifying and addressing NMDRs in the risk assessment process.

Tropane alkaloid contamination of agricultural commodities and food products in relation to consumer health: Learnings from the 2019 Uganda food aid outbreak

Tropane alkaloids (TAs) are secondary plant metabolites derived mainly from Solanaceae plant families, with the most virulent invasive species being Datura stramonium. Datura stramonium commonly grows in cereal fields and produce TAs (e.g., hyoscyamine and scopolamine) which may accidentally contaminate cereals (and cereal-based foods) at occasionally high levels. Dietary exposure to TAs can be toxic and depending on the dose ingested can cause outcomes ranging from anticholinergic effects to acute poisoning and death. In 2019, 315 adults became ill and another five adults died in Uganda following consumption of a "Super Cereal" (a fortified blended food) that was later confirmed to be contaminated by TAs-a scenario which provoked this holistic review on TAs in foodstuffs. Thus, this article provides information on the history, development, occurrences, exposures, and human legislative and health benchmarks for TAs. It describes control strategies for reducing TA contamination of agricultural commodities and resultant health implications following consumption of TA contaminated foodstuffs. Adequate application of food safety control measures (including maximum limits) and good practices, from the start of cereal cultivation through to the final stages of manufacturing of food products can aid in the reduction of seeing toxic plants including D. stramonium in cereal fields.

Simultaneous quantification of three tropane alkaloids in goji berries by cleanup of the graphene/hexagonal boron nitride hybrids and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

A modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe method was established for simultaneous determination of atropine, anisodamine, and scopolamine in goji berries by using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. The graphene/hexagonal boron nitride hybrids were prepared and first applied as a cleanup adsorbent. Compared to classical cleanup adsorbent (C₁₈ ), the graphene/hexagonal boron nitride hybrids as adsorbent had better extraction efficiency for the detection of analytes. Under the optimal conditions, the proposed analytical method achieved satisfactory linearity (R²  > 0.995), and obtained desirable recoveries ranged from 77.4 to 94.0% with the relative standard deviation of 1.2-6.1% at the concentration levels of 3.2-13.4 µg/kg. The limits of quantitation of atropine, anisodamine, and scopolamine were, respectively, 3.2, 4.6, and 4.5 µg/kg with linearity ranged from 3.2 to 25.4 µg/kg. The modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe sample preparation with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry method was successfully applied to evaluate the safety of goji berries collected from 30 plant areas in China, suggesting its applicability and suitability for the routine analysis of three tropane alkaloids in goji berries.

Simultaneous quantification of atropine and scopolamine in infusions of herbal tea and Solanaceae plant material by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (tandem) mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Atropine (Atr) and scopolamine (Scp) are toxic secondary plant metabolites of species within the Solanaceae genus that can accidentally or intentionally reach the food store chain by inaccurate harvesting of any plant material, e.g. for herbal tea infusions. Ingestion may cause severe anticholinergic poisoning thus requiring risk-oriented determination in food and beverages. The suitability of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (tandem) mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF MS(/MS), should be characterized for simultaneous analysis.

METHODS

We herein present the first MALDI-TOF MS(/MS) procedure for quantitative determination of both alkaloids in herbal tea infusions and Solanaceae plant material. A standard additions procedure using triply deuterated Atr as internal standard was developed and validated.

RESULTS

Tropane alkaloids were detected without interferences and the standard additions procedure allowed reliable quantification. Intraday and interday precision were less than 17% and corresponding accuracies were between 77% and 112%. Limits of detection in the spotting solution were found at 5 ng/mL (Atr) and 0.5 ng/mL (Scp). The assay was applied to diverse tea infusions as well as to berries and leaves of deadly nightshade and angel's trumpet.

CONCLUSIONS

The usefulness of MALDI-TOF MS(/MS) for investigations of plant-derived samples to prove contaminations by small basic compounds was demonstrated. The elaborate procedure is reliable but quite laborious to obtain quantitative results, but MALDI-TOF MS(/MS) was also shown to be a valuable tool for rapid qualitative screening for Atr and Scp in plant extracts.

A modified QuEChERS method coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the simultaneous detection and quantification of scopolamine, L-hyoscyamine, and sparteine residues in animal-derived food products

We developed a modified Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (CEN QuEChERS) extraction method coupled with liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI⁺/MS-MS) to identify and quantify residues of three botanical alkaloids, namely, scopolamine, L-hyoscyamine, and sparteine, in animal-derived foods, including porcine muscle, egg, and milk. A combination of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium buffer and acetonitrile acidified with 0.5% trifluoroacetic acid was used as an extraction solvent, whereas QuEChERS (CEN, 15662) kits and sorbents were applied for cleanup procedures. The proposed method was validated by determining the limits of quantification (LOQs), with values of 1-5 µg/kg achieved for the target analytes in various matrices. Linearity was estimated from matrix-matched calibration curves constructed using six concentration levels ranging from 1- to 6-fold increases in the LOQs of each analyte, and the correlation coefficients (R² ) were ≥0.9869. Recoveries (at three concentration levels of 1-, 2-, and 3-fold increases in the LOQ) of 73-104% were achieved with relative standard deviations (RSDs) ≤7.7% (intra-day and inter-day precision). Ten types of each matrix procured from large markets were evaluated, and all tested samples showed negative results. The current protocol is simple and versatile and can be used for routine detection of plant alkaloids in animal food products.