Whey Protein Isolate Composites as Potential Scaffolds for Cultivated Meat

Modern food technology has given rise to numerous alternative protein sources in response to a growing human population and the negative environmental impacts of current food systems. To aid in achieving global food security, one such form of alternative protein being investigated is cultivated meat, which applies the principles of mechanical and tissue engineering to produce animal proteins and meat products from animal cells. Herein, nonmodified and methacrylated whey protein formed hydrogels with methacrylated alginate as potential tissue engineering scaffolds for cultivated meat. Whey protein is a byproduct of dairy processing and was selected because it is an approved food additive and cytocompatible and has shown efficacy in other biomaterial applications. Whey protein and alginate scaffolds were formed via visible light cross-linking in aqueous solutions under ambient conditions. The characteristics of the precursor solution and the physical-mechanical properties of the scaffolds were quantified; while gelation occurred within the homo- and copolymer hydrogels, the integrity of the network was significantly altered with varying components. Qualitatively, the scaffolds exhibited a three-dimensional (3D) interconnected porous network. Whey protein isolate (WPI)-based scaffolds were noncytotoxic and supported in vitro myoblast adhesion and proliferation. The data presented support the hypothesis that the composition of the hydrogel plays a significant role in the scaffold's performance.

Effectiveness of a New Enzyme-Free Method for the Preparation of a Decellularized Adipose-Derived Matrix

BACKGROUND

Decellularized adipose-derived matrix (DAM) represents a new alternative to tissue fillers. The function of DAM is closely associated with the decellularization technique used for its preparation. However, most techniques are time-consuming and expensive, and this might reduce the popularity of DAM.

OBJECTIVES

The study aimed to investigate an enzyme-free adipose decellularization method and generate a DAM capable of adipose tissue regeneration.

METHODS

DAMs prepared by the enzyme-free and Flynn's methods were compared and co-cultured with human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) to investigate cytocompatibility. Adipose tissue formation was evaluated by injecting the DAMs into the backs of nude mice over 4 weeks. Samples were harvested for gross and perilipin immunohistochemistry analysis at 1 and 4 weeks.

RESULTS

The enzyme-free method is effective for adipose decellularization because it removes adipocytes and preserves the microstructure. In vitro, the DAM made by the enzyme-free method could support the attachment, growth, proliferation, and differentiation of hADSCs, and promote the enhanced secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor by hADSCs; this DAM also induced the formation and maturity of adipocytes in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes a highly effective enzyme-free method for adipose tissue decellularization that also promotes adipocyte formation and adipose tissue volume stability in vitro and in vivo, resulting in a new alternative tissue filler.

In vitro strategies for mimicking dynamic cell-ECM reciprocity in 3D culture models

The extracellular microenvironment regulates cell decisions through the accurate presentation at the cell surface of a complex array of biochemical and biophysical signals that are mediated by the structure and composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). On the one hand, the cells actively remodel the ECM, which on the other hand affects cell functions. This cell-ECM dynamic reciprocity is central in regulating and controlling morphogenetic and histogenetic processes. Misregulation within the extracellular space can cause aberrant bidirectional interactions between cells and ECM, resulting in dysfunctional tissues and pathological states. Therefore, tissue engineering approaches, aiming at reproducing organs and tissues in vitro, should realistically recapitulate the native cell-microenvironment crosstalk that is central for the correct functionality of tissue-engineered constructs. In this review, we will describe the most updated bioengineering approaches to recapitulate the native cell microenvironment and reproduce functional tissues and organs in vitro. We have highlighted the limitations of the use of exogenous scaffolds in recapitulating the regulatory/instructive and signal repository role of the native cell microenvironment. By contrast, strategies to reproduce human tissues and organs by inducing cells to synthetize their own ECM acting as a provisional scaffold to control and guide further tissue development and maturation hold the potential to allow the engineering of fully functional histologically competent three-dimensional (3D) tissues.

How Mechanical and Physicochemical Material Characteristics Influence Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Fate

Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) are a subpopulation of mesenchymal stem cells. Compared to bone marrow-derived stem cells, they can be harvested with minimal invasiveness. ASCs can be easily expanded and were shown to be able to differentiate into several clinically relevant cell types. Therefore, this cell type represents a promising component in various tissue engineering and medical approaches (e.g., cell therapy). In vivo cells are surrounded by the extracellular matrix (ECM) that provides a wide range of tissue-specific physical and chemical cues, such as stiffness, topography, and chemical composition. Cells can sense the characteristics of their ECM and respond to them in a specific cellular behavior (e.g., proliferation or differentiation). Thus, in vitro biomaterial properties represent an important tool to control ASCs behavior. In this review, we give an overview of the current research in the mechanosensing of ASCs and current studies investigating the impact of material stiffens, topography, and chemical modification on ASC behavior. Additionally, we outline the use of natural ECM as a biomaterial and its interaction with ASCs regarding cellular behavior.

Pushing the Natural Frontier: Progress on the Integration of Biomaterial Cues toward Combinatorial Biofabrication and Tissue Engineering

The engineering of fully functional, biological-like tissues requires biomaterials to direct cellular events to a near-native, 3D niche extent. Natural biomaterials are generally seen as a safe option for cell support, but their biocompatibility and biodegradability can be just as limited as their bioactive/biomimetic performance. Furthermore, integrating different biomaterial cues and their final impact on cellular behavior is a complex equation where the outcome might be very different from the sum of individual parts. This review critically analyses recent progress on biomaterial-induced cellular responses, from simple adhesion to more complex stem cell differentiation, looking at the ever-growing possibilities of natural materials modification. Starting with a discussion on native material formulation and the inclusion of cell-instructive cues, the roles of shape and mechanical stimuli, the susceptibility to cellular remodeling, and the often-overlooked impact of cellular density and cell-cell interactions within constructs, are delved into. Along the way, synergistic and antagonistic combinations reported in vitro and in vivo are singled out, identifying needs and current lessons on the development of natural biomaterial libraries to solve the cell-material puzzle efficiently. This review brings together knowledge from different fields envisioning next-generation, combinatorial biomaterial development toward complex tissue engineering.

Effect of Cell-Derived Matrices on Growth and Differentiation of Human Wharton's Jelly-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Cell-derived matrices (CDMs) are scaffolds constructed by decellularization of cellular matrices from different tissues and organs. Since CDMs mimic the extracellular matrices (ECMs) of native tissues, it plays an essential role in the preparation of bioscaffolds. CDM scaffolds from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been reported to support cell adhesion and proliferation of its own cells. Therefore, in this study we aimed to test if growth of human Wharton's jelly-derived MSCs may be enhanced when cultured on their own CDMs. To do this, MSCs were induced to generate ECM using ascorbic acid. Thus, obtained matrices were decellularized and characterized quantitatively for changes in their biochemical components (total protein, collagen, glycosaminoglycans) and qualitatively for fibronectin, laminin, and collagen (I & IV) by immunostaining. Our results show the retention of essential ECM components in the decellularized WJ-MSC-derived matrix (WJ-CDM). The influence of WJ-CDM on proliferation and differentiation of WJ-MSCs were evaluated by comparing their growth on collagen and fibronectin-only coated plates. A non-coated tissue culture polystyrene plate (TCPS) served as control. Our cell proliferation results show that no significant changes were observed in the proliferation of MSCs when cultured on WJ-CDM as compared to the bio-coated and non-coated cultures. However, gene expression analysis of the differentiation process showed that osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation potential of the WJ-MSCs was significantly increased upon culturing them on WJ-CDM. In conclusion, the present study reveals that the WJ-MSCs cultured on WJ-CDM may augment osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation.

Engineered cell-laden thermosensitive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-immobilized gelatin microspheres as 3D cell carriers for regenerative medicine

Several studies have focused on using cell carriers to solve the problem of mesenchymal stem cell expansion on regenerative medicine. However, the disadvantages of using prolonged enzymatic treatment and low cell harvest efficiency still trouble researchers. In this study, PNIPAAm-immobilized gelatin microspheres (abbreviated as GNMS) were synthesized using a simple power-driven flow-focusing microinjection system. The developed thermosensitive GNMS can allow easier harvesting of cells from the microspheres, requiring only 10 ​min of low-temperature treatment and 5 ​min of trypsin treatment. The developed GNMS was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, optical microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Further, live/dead staining, F-actin staining, and PrestoBlue cell viability assays were used to evaluate cytotoxicity, cell morphology, cell proliferation, and harvest efficiency. The gene expression of stem cell markers was determined by real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) analysis to investigate the stemness and phenotypic changes in Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells. The results showed that the engineered cell-laden thermosensitive GNMS could significantly increase the cell harvest rate with over 99% cell survival rate and no change in the cell phenotype. Thus, the described strategy GNMS could be the suitable 3D cell carriers in the therapeutic application and opens new avenues for regenerative medicine.

Autologous decellularized extracellular matrix promotes adipogenic differentiation of adipose derived stem cells in low serum culture system by regulating the ERK1/2-PPARγ pathway

High viability and further adipogenic differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) are fundamental for engraftment and growth of the transplanted adipose tissue. It has been demonstrated that extracellular matrix (ECM) regulates cell proliferation and differentiation by interacting with ERK1/2 signalling pathway. In this study, we prepared autologous decellularized extracellular matrix (d-ECM) and explored its effect on the proliferation and adipogenic ability of ADSCs in low serum culture. We found that 2% foetal bovine serum (FBS) in growth medium inhibited cell viability and DNA replication, and decreased mRNA and protein levels of PPARγ and C/EPBα compared with 10% FBS. Correspondingly, after 14-days adipogenic induction, cells cultured in 2% FBS possessed lower efficiency of adipogenesis and expressed less adipocyte differentiation markers ADIPOQ and aP2. On the contrary, the d-ECM-coated substrate continuously promoted the expression of PPARγ, and regulated the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in different manners during differentiation. Pretreatment with ERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 neutralized the effects of d-ECM, which suggested d-ECM might regulate the adipogenesis of ADSCs through ERK1/2-PPARγ pathway. In addition, d-ECM was revealed to regulate the transcription and expression of stemness-associated genes, such as OCT4, NANOG and SOX2, in the undifferentiated ADSCs, which might be related to the initiation of differentiation.

Bioprinting of Stem Cells in Multimaterial Scaffolds and Their Applications in Bone Tissue Engineering

Bioprinting stem cells into three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds has emerged as a new avenue for regenerative medicine, bone tissue engineering, and biosensor manufacturing in recent years. Mesenchymal stem cells, such as adipose-derived and bone-marrow-derived stem cells, are capable of multipotent differentiation in a 3D culture. The use of different printing methods results in varying effects on the bioprinted stem cells with the appearance of no general adverse effects. Specifically, extrusion, inkjet, and laser-assisted bioprinting are three methods that impact stem cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation potential. Each printing method confers advantages and disadvantages that directly influence cellular behavior. Additionally, the acquisition of 3D bioprinters has become more prominent with innovative technology and affordability. With accessible technology, custom 3D bioprinters with capabilities to print high-performance bioinks are used for biosensor fabrication. Such 3D printed biosensors are used to control conductivity and electrical transmission in physiological environments. Once printed, the scaffolds containing the aforementioned stem cells have a significant impact on cellular behavior and differentiation. Natural polymer hydrogels and natural composites can impact osteogenic differentiation with some inducing chondrogenesis. Further studies have shown enhanced osteogenesis using cell-laden scaffolds in vivo. Furthermore, selective use of biomaterials can directly influence cell fate and the quantity of osteogenesis. This review evaluates the impact of extrusion, inkjet, and laser-assisted bioprinting on adipose-derived and bone-marrow-derived stem cells along with the effect of incorporating these stem cells into natural and composite biomaterials.

Three dimensional porous scaffolds derived from collagen, elastin and fibrin proteins orchestrate adipose tissue regeneration

Current gold standard to treat soft tissue injuries caused by trauma and pathological condition are autografts and off the shelf fillers, but they have inherent weaknesses like donor site morbidity, immuno-compatibility and graft failure. To overcome these limitations, tissue-engineered polymers are seeded with stem cells to improve the potential to restore tissue function. However, their interaction with native tissue is poorly understood so far. To study these interactions and improve outcomes, we have fabricated scaffolds from natural polymers (collagen, fibrin and elastin) by custom-designed processes and their material properties such as surface morphology, swelling, wettability and chemical cross-linking ability were characterised. By using 3D scaffolds, we comprehensive assessed survival, proliferation and phenotype of adipose-derived stem cells in vitro. In vivo, scaffolds were seeded with adipose-derived stem cells and implanted in a rodent model, with X-ray microtomography, histology and immunohistochemistry as read-outs. Collagen-based materials showed higher cell adhesion and proliferation in vitro as well as higher adipogenic properties in vivo. In contrast, fibrin demonstrated poor cellular and adipogenesis properties but higher angiogenesis. Elastin formed the most porous scaffold, with cells displaying a non-aggregated morphology in vitro while in vivo elastin was the most degraded scaffold. These findings of how polymers present in the natural polymers mimicking ECM and seeded with stem cells affect adipogenesis in vitro and in vivo can open avenues to design 3D grafts for soft tissue repair.

Integrating biomaterials and food biopolymers for cultured meat production

Cultured meat has recently achieved mainstream prominence due to the emergence of societal and industrial interest. In contrast to animal-based production of traditional meat, the cultured meat approach entails laboratory cultivation of engineered muscle tissue. However, bioengineers have hitherto engineered tissues to fulfil biomedical endpoints, and have had limited experience in engineering muscle tissue for its post-mortem traits, which broadly govern consumer definitions of meat quality. Furthermore, existing tissue engineering approaches face fundamental challenges in technical feasibility and industrial scalability for cultured meat production. This review discusses how animal-based meat production variables influence meat properties at both the molecular and functional level, and whether current cultured meat approaches recapitulate these properties. In addition, this review considers how conventional meat producers employ exogenous biopolymer-based meat ingredients and processing techniques to mimic desirable meat properties in meat products. Finally, current biomaterial strategies for engineering muscle and adipose tissue are surveyed in the context of emerging constraints that pertain to cultured meat production, such as edibility, sustainability and scalability, and potential areas for integrating biomaterials and food biopolymer approaches to address these constraints are discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Laboratory-grown or cultured meat has gained increasing interest from industry and the public, but currently faces significant impediment to market feasibility. This is due to fundamental knowledge gaps in producing realistic meat tissues via conventional tissue engineering approaches, as well as translational challenges in scaling up these approaches in an efficient, sustainable and high-volume manner. By defining the molecular basis for desirable meat quality attributes, such as taste and texture, and introducing the fundamental roles of food biopolymers in mimicking these properties in conventional meat products, this review aims to bridge the historically disparate fields of meat science and biomaterials engineering in order to inspire potentially synergistic strategies that address some of these challenges.

Recent Advance in Source, Property, Differentiation, and Applications of Infrapatellar Fat Pad Adipose-Derived Stem Cells

Infrapatellar fat pad (IPFP) can be easily obtained during knee surgery, which avoids the damage to patients for obtaining IPFP. Infrapatellar fat pad adipose-derived stem cells (IPFP-ASCs) are also called infrapatellar fat pad mesenchymal stem cells (IPFP-MSCs) because the morphology of IPFP-ASCs is similar to that of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs). IPFP-ASCs are attracting more and more attention due to their characteristics suitable to regenerative medicine such as strong proliferation and differentiation, anti-inflammation, antiaging, secreting cytokines, multipotential capacity, and 3D culture. IPFP-ASCs can repair articular cartilage and relieve the pain caused by osteoarthritis, so most of IPFP-related review articles focus on osteoarthritis. This article reviews the anatomy and function of IPFP, as well as the discovery, amplification, multipotential capacity, and application of IPFP-ASCs in order to explain why IPFP-ASC is a superior stem cell source in regenerative medicine.

Adipose extracellular matrix promotes skin wound healing by inducing the differentiation of adipose‑derived stem cells into fibroblasts

Fibroblasts are the major effector cells of skin wound healing. Adipose-derived stem cells can differentiate into fibroblasts under certain conditions. In the present study, it was hypothesized that adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) could be induced by the adipose extracellular matrix (ECM) to differentiate into fibroblasts in order to promote skin wound healing. First, flow cytometry was used to detect the ratio of fibroblasts and relative expression of the fibroblast markers cytokeratin 19 (CK19) and vimentin in ADSCs. Then, the effect of the adipose ECM during the differentiation of ADSCs into fibroblasts was investigated by detecting the total amount of collagen fibers and degree of fibrosis, and the proliferation and cell cycle of differentiated fibroblasts, using the MTT assay and flow cytometry analysis respectively. Finally, a mouse skin wound model was established and treated with PBS, ADSC suspension or ECM + ADSCs to compare wound healing rate and expression of collagen I and collagen III by immunohistochemistry. Following induction of ADSCs with the adipose ECM, more fibroblasts were found, expression of CK19 and vimentin increased, and a greater degree of fibrosis occurred, which revealed the positive effect of the adipose ECM on the differentiation of ADSCs into fibroblasts. In addition, the induced fibroblasts had enhanced proliferation activity, with more cells in the S phase and fewer in the G2/M phase. The in vivo experiment indicated that the ECM produced by the ADSCs had a faster wound healing rate and increased expression of collagen I and collagen III compared with mice injected with PBS or ADSCs alone, which verified that ADSCs induced by the adipose ECM had a positive effect on skin wound healing. The present study demonstrated that the adipose ECM in combination with ADSCs may be a novel therapeutic target for the repair of skin injury, due to the ability of the adipose ECM to induce the differentiation of ADSCs into fibroblasts and to facilitate the wound healing process.

Recellularization of decellularized adipose tissue-derived stem cells: role of the cell-secreted extracellular matrix in cellular differentiation

Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) are found in a location within the adipose tissue known as the stem cell niche. The ASCs in the niche are maintained in the quiescent state, and upon exposure to various microenvironmental triggers are prompted to undergo proliferation or differentiation. These microenvironmental triggers also modulate the extracellular matrix (ECM), which interacts with the cells through the cytoskeleton and induces downstream events inside the cells that bring about a change in cell behaviour. In response to these changes, the cells remodel the ECM, which will differ according to the type of tissue being formed by the cells. As the ECM itself plays an important role in the regulation of cellular differentiation, this study aims to explore the role of the cell-secreted ECM at various stages of differentiation of stem cells in triggering the differentiation of ASCs. To this end, the ASCs cultured in proliferation, osteogenic and adipogenic media were decellularized and the secreted ECM was characterized. Overall, it was found that osteo-differentiated ASCs produced higher amounts of collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAG) compared to the undifferentiated and adipo-differentiated ASCs. The two types of differentiated ECMs were subsequently shown to trigger initial but not terminal differentiation of ASCs into osteo- and adipo-lineages respectively, as indicated by the upregulation of lineage specific markers. In addition, integrin subunits alpha (α) 6 and integrin beta (β) 1 were found to be produced by ASCs cultured on cell-secreted ECM-coated substrates, suggesting that the integrins α6 and β1 play an instrumental role in cell-ECM interactions. Taken together, this study demonstrates the importance of the ECM in cellular fate decisions and how ECM-coated substrates can potentially be used for various tissue engineering applications.

Cell Mimicking Microparticles Influence the Organization, Growth, and Mechanophenotype of Stem Cell Spheroids

Substrate stiffness is known to alter cell behavior and drive stem cell differentiation, though most research in this area has been restricted to traditional, two-dimensional culture systems rather than more physiologically relevant, three-dimensional (3D) platforms. In this study, we utilized polymer-based, cell mimicking microparticles (CMMPs) to deliver distinct, stable mechanical cues to human adipose derived stem cells in 3D spheroid culture to examine changes in adipogenic differentiation response and mechanophenotype. After 21 days of adipogenic induction, spheroids containing CMMPs (composite spheroids) stiffened in accordance with CMMP elasticity such that spheroids containing the stiffest, ~ 10 kPa, CMMPs were over 27% stiffer than those incorporating the most compliant, ~ 0.25 kPa CMMPs. Adipogenically induced, cell-only spheroids were over 180% larger and 50% more compliant than matched controls. Interestingly, composite spheroids cultured without chemical induction factors dissociated when presented with CMMPs stiffer than ~ 1 kPa, while adipogenic induction factors mitigated this behavior. Gene expression for PPARG and FABP4 were upregulated more than 45-fold in adipogenically induced samples compared to controls but were unaffected by CMMP elasticity, attributed to insufficient cell-CMMP contacts throughout the composite spheroid. In summary, mechanically tuned CMMPs influenced whole-spheroid mechanophenotype and stability but minimally affected differentiation response.

Hybrid Biomimetic Interfaces Integrating Supported Lipid Bilayers with Decellularized Extracellular Matrix Components

This paper describes the functionalization of solid supported phospholipid bilayer with decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) components, toward the development of biomimetic platforms that more closely mimic the cell surface environment. The dECM was obtained through a combination of chemical and enzymatic treatments of mouse adipose tissue that contains collagen, fibronectin, and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Using amine coupling chemistry, the dECM components were attached covalently to the surface of a supported lipid bilayer containing phospholipids with reactive carboxylic acid headgroups. The bilayer formation and the kinetics of subsequent dECM conjugation were monitored by quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) confirmed the fluidity of the membrane after functionalization with dECM. The resulting hybrid biomimetic interface supports the attachment and survival of the human hepatocyte Huh 7.5 and maintains the representative hepatocellular function. Importantly, the platform is suitable for monitoring the lateral organization and clustering of cell-binding ligands and growth factor receptors in the presence of the rich biochemical profile of tissue-derived ECM components.

Fish scale-derived collagen patch promotes growth of blood and lymphatic vessels in vivo

In this study, Type I collagen was extracted from fish scales asa potential alternative source of collagen for tissue engineering applications. Since unmodified collagen typically has poor mechanical and degradation stability both in vitro and in vivo, additional methylation modification and 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDE) crosslinking steps were used to improve the physicochemical properties of fish scale-derived collagen. Subsequently, in vivo studies using a murine model demonstrated the biocompatibility of the different fish scale-derived collagen patches. In general, favorable integration of the collagen patches to the surrounding tissues, with good infiltration of cells, blood vessels (BVs) and lymphatic vessels (LVs) were observed under growth factor-free conditions. Interestingly, significantly higher (p<0.05) number of LVs was found to be more abundant around collagen patches with methylation modification and BDE crosslinking. Overall, we have demonstrated the potential application of fish scale-derived collagen as a promising scaffolding material for various biomedical applications.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Currently the most common sources of collagen are of bovine and porcine origins, although the industrial use of collagen obtained from non-mammalian species is growing in importance, particularly since they have a lower risk of disease transmission and are not subjected to any cultural or religious constraints. However, unmodified collagen typically has poor mechanical and degradation stability both in vitro and in vivo. Hence, in this study, Type I collagen was successfully extracted from fish scales and chemically modified and crosslinked. In vitro studies showed overall improvement in the physicochemical properties of the material, whilst in vivo implantation studies showed improvements in the growth of blood and lymphatic host vessels in the vicinity of the implants.

Effect of matrix stiffness on the proliferation and differentiation of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a compatible cellular alternative for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering because of their powerful multipotency. Matrix stiffness plays a profound role on stem cell behavior. Nevertheless, the effect of matrix stiffness on umbilical cordmesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) remains unexplored. To conduct an in-depth exploration, we cultured UC-MSCs on different stiffness (Young's modulus: 13-16, 35-38, 48-53, and 62-68 kPa) polyacrylamide gels coated with fibronectin. We found that the proliferation and adhesion of UC-MSCs varied when cultured on the different matrices, and the spreading capacity was stronger as the stiffness increased (*P<0.05). Real-time quantitative PCR results showed that the soft matrix promoted adipogenic differentiation, with higher expression levels of adipocytic markers like PPARγ and C/EBPα (*P<0.05). In contrast, cells tended to differentiate into muscle when cultured on the 48-53 kPa matrix, which was validated by increased expression of myogenic makers like desminand MOYG (*P<0.05). Moreover, increased expression of osteoblastic makers (*P<0.05), such as ALP, collagen type I, osteocalcin, and Runx2, confirmed that cells differentiated into bone on the high-stiffness matrix.

Supercritical carbon dioxide extracted extracellular matrix material from adipose tissue

Adipose tissue is a rich source of extracellular matrix (ECM) material that can be isolated by delipidating and decellularizing the tissue. However, the current delipidation and decellularization methods either involve tedious and lengthy processes or require toxic chemicals, which may result in the elimination of vital proteins and growth factors found in the ECM. Hence, an alternative delipidation and decellularization method for adipose tissue was developed using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂) that eliminates the need of any harsh chemicals and also reduces the amount of processing time required. The resultant SC-CO₂-treated ECM material showed an absence of nuclear content but the preservation of key proteins such as collagen Type I, collagen Type III, collagen Type IV, elastin, fibronectin and laminin. In addition, other biological factors such as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and growth factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were also retained. Subsequently, the resulting SC-CO₂-treated ECM material was used as a bioactive coating on tissue culture plastic (TCP). Four different cell types including adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASCs), human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), immortalized human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells and human monocytic leukemia cells (THP-1) were used in this study to show that the SC-CO₂-treated ECM coating can be potentially used for various biomedical applications. The SC-CO₂-treated ECM material showed improved cell-material interactions for all cell types tested. In addition, in vitro scratch wound assay using HaCaT cells showed that the presence of SC-CO₂-treated ECM material enhanced keratinocyte migration whilst the in vitro cellular studies using THP-1-derived macrophages showed that the SC-CO₂-treated ECM material did not evoke pro-inflammatory responses from the THP-1-derived macrophages. Overall, this study shows the efficacy of SC-CO₂ method for delipidation and decellularization of adipose tissue whilst retaining its ECM and its subsequent utilization as a bioactive surface coating material for soft tissue engineering, angiogenesis and wound healing applications.

13C dynamic nuclear polarization for measuring metabolic flux in endothelial progenitor cells

Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) represent a heterogeneous cell population that is believed to be involved in vasculogenesis. With the purpose of enhancing endothelial repair, EPCs could have a potential for future cell therapies. Due to the low amount of EPCs in the peripheral circulating blood, in vitro expansion is needed before administration to recipients and the effects of in vitro culturing is still an under-evaluated field with little knowledge of how the cells change over time in culture. The aim of this study was to use hyperpolarised carbon-13 magnetic resonance spectroscopy to profile important metabolic pathways in a population of progenitor cells and to show that cell culturing in 3D scaffolds seem to block the metabolic processes that leads to cell senescence. The metabolic breakdown of hyperpolarized [1-¹³C]pyruvate was followed after injection of the substrate to a bioreactor system with EPCs either adhered to 3D printed scaffolds or kept in cell suspension. The pyruvate-to-lactate conversion was elevated in suspension of EPCs compared to the EPCs adhered to scaffolds. Furthermore in the setup with EPCs in suspension, an increase in lactate production was seen over time indicating that the older the cultures of EPCs was before using the cells for cell suspension experiments, the more lactate they produce, compared to a constant lactate level in the cells adhered to scaffolds. It could therefore be stated that cells grown first in 2D culture and subsequent prepared for cell suspension show a metabolism with higher lactate production consistent with cells senescence processes compared to cells grown first at 2D culture and subsequent in the 3D printed scaffolds, where metabolism shows no sign of metabolic shifting during the monitored period.

Comparative study of adipose-derived stem cells and bone marrow-derived stem cells in similar microenvironmental conditions

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which were first isolated from the bone marrow, are now being extracted from various other tissues in the body, including the adipose tissue. The current study presents systematic evidence of how the adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ASCs) and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (Bm-MSCs) behave when cultured in specific pro-adipogenic microenvironments. The cells were first characterized and identified as MSCs in terms of their morphology, phenotypic expression, self-renewal capabilities and multi-lineage potential. Subsequently, the proliferation and gene expression profiles of the cell populations cultured on two-dimensional (2D) adipose tissue extracellular matrix (ECM)-coated tissue culture plastic (TCP) and in three-dimensional (3D) AlgiMatrix® microenvironments were analyzed. Overall, it was found that adipogenesis was triggered in both cell populations due to the presence of adipose tissue ECM. However, in 3D microenvironments, ASCs and Bm-MSCs were predisposed to the adipogenic and osteogenic lineages respectively. Overall, findings from this study will contribute to ongoing efforts in adipose tissue engineering as well as provide new insights into the role of the ECM and cues provided by the immediate microenvironment for stem cell differentiation.

New insights into the unfolded protein response in stem cells

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is an evolutionarily conserved adaptive mechanism to increase cell survival under endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress conditions. The UPR is critical for maintaining cell homeostasis under physiological and pathological conditions. The vital functions of the UPR in development, metabolism and immunity have been demonstrated in several cell types. UPR dysfunction activates a variety of pathologies, including cancer, inflammation, neurodegenerative disease, metabolic disease and immune disease. Stem cells with the special ability to self-renew and differentiate into various somatic cells have been demonstrated to be present in multiple tissues. These cells are involved in development, tissue renewal and certain disease processes. Although the role and regulation of the UPR in somatic cells has been widely reported, the function of the UPR in stem cells is not fully known, and the roles and functions of the UPR are dependent on the stem cell type. Therefore, in this article, the potential significances of the UPR in stem cells, including embryonic stem cells, tissue stem cells, cancer stem cells and induced pluripotent cells, are comprehensively reviewed. This review aims to provide novel insights regarding the mechanisms associated with stem cell differentiation and cancer pathology.

Enhanced adhesion and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cell inside apatite-mineralized/poly(dopamine)-coated poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffolds by stereolithography

The purpose of this study is to develop PCL scaffolds using stereolithography technology and induced modifications using a poly dopamine (PDA)-coated/HA precipitate to stimulate human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs).