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Abstract
The kidneys are vital organs performing several essential functions. Their primary function is the filtration of blood and the removal of metabolic waste products as well as fluid homeostasis. Renal filtration is the main pathway for drug removal, highlighting the importance of this organ to the growing field of nanomedicine. The kidneys (i) have a key role in the transport and clearance of nanoparticles (NPs), (ii) are exposed to potential NPs’ toxicity, and (iii) are the targets of diseases that nanomedicine can study, detect, and treat. In this review, we aim to summarize the latest research on kidney-nanoparticle interaction. We first give a brief overview of the kidney’s anatomy and renal filtration, describe how nanoparticle characteristics influence their renal clearance, and the approaches taken to image and treat the kidney, including drug delivery and tissue engineering. Finally, we discuss the future and some of the challenges faced by nanomedicine.
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Anjum S, Ishaque S, Fatima H, Farooq W, Hano C, Abbasi BH, Anjum I. Emerging Applications of Nanotechnology in Healthcare Systems: Grand Challenges and Perspectives. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14080707. [PMID: 34451803 PMCID: PMC8401281 DOI: 10.3390/ph14080707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Healthcare, as a basic human right, has often become the focus of the development of innovative technologies. Technological progress has significantly contributed to the provision of high-quality, on-time, acceptable, and affordable healthcare. Advancements in nanoscience have led to the emergence of a new generation of nanostructures. Each of them has a unique set of properties that account for their astonishing applications. Since its inception, nanotechnology has continuously affected healthcare and has exerted a tremendous influence on its transformation, contributing to better outcomes. In the last two decades, the world has seen nanotechnology taking steps towards its omnipresence and the process has been accelerated by extensive research in various healthcare sectors. The inclusion of nanotechnology and its allied nanocarriers/nanosystems in medicine is known as nanomedicine, a field that has brought about numerous benefits in disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Various nanosystems have been found to be better candidates for theranostic purposes, in contrast to conventional ones. This review paper will shed light on medically significant nanosystems, as well as their applications and limitations in areas such as gene therapy, targeted drug delivery, and in the treatment of cancer and various genetic diseases. Although nanotechnology holds immense potential, it is yet to be exploited. More efforts need to be directed to overcome these limitations and make full use of its potential in order to revolutionize the healthcare sector in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumaira Anjum
- Department of Biotechnology, Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (S.I.); (H.F.); (W.F.); (I.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +92-300-6957038
| | - Sara Ishaque
- Department of Biotechnology, Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (S.I.); (H.F.); (W.F.); (I.A.)
| | - Hijab Fatima
- Department of Biotechnology, Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (S.I.); (H.F.); (W.F.); (I.A.)
| | - Wajiha Farooq
- Department of Biotechnology, Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (S.I.); (H.F.); (W.F.); (I.A.)
| | - Christophe Hano
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures (LBLGC), INRAe USC1328, Université d’Orléans, 28000 Chartres, France;
| | - Bilal Haider Abbasi
- Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Iram Anjum
- Department of Biotechnology, Kinnaird College for Women, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (S.I.); (H.F.); (W.F.); (I.A.)
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Eftekhari A, Maleki Dizaj S, Ahmadian E, Przekora A, Hosseiniyan Khatibi SM, Ardalan M, Zununi Vahed S, Valiyeva M, Mehraliyeva S, Khalilov R, Hasanzadeh M. Application of Advanced Nanomaterials for Kidney Failure Treatment and Regeneration. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14112939. [PMID: 34072461 PMCID: PMC8198057 DOI: 10.3390/ma14112939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The implementation of nanomedicine not only provides enhanced drug solubility and reduced off-target adverse effects, but also offers novel theranostic approaches in clinical practice. The increasing number of studies on the application of nanomaterials in kidney therapies has provided hope in a more efficient strategy for the treatment of renal diseases. The combination of biotechnology, material science and nanotechnology has rapidly gained momentum in the realm of therapeutic medicine. The establishment of the bedrock of this emerging field has been initiated and an exponential progress is observed which might significantly improve the quality of human life. In this context, several approaches based on nanomaterials have been applied in the treatment and regeneration of renal tissue. The presented review article in detail describes novel strategies for renal failure treatment with the use of various nanomaterials (including carbon nanotubes, nanofibrous membranes), mesenchymal stem cells-derived nanovesicles, and nanomaterial-based adsorbents and membranes that are used in wearable blood purification systems and synthetic kidneys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aziz Eftekhari
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh 7815155158, Iran;
- Russian Institute for Advanced Study, Moscow State Pedagogical University, 1/1, Malaya Pirogovskaya St., 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Solmaz Maleki Dizaj
- Dental and Periodontal Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614756, Iran;
| | - Elham Ahmadian
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614756, Iran; (S.M.H.K.); (S.Z.V.)
- Correspondence: (E.A.); (A.P.); (M.A.); (M.H.); Tel.: +48-81-448-7026 (A.P.)
| | - Agata Przekora
- Chair and Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 1 Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
- Correspondence: (E.A.); (A.P.); (M.A.); (M.H.); Tel.: +48-81-448-7026 (A.P.)
| | | | - Mohammadreza Ardalan
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614756, Iran; (S.M.H.K.); (S.Z.V.)
- Correspondence: (E.A.); (A.P.); (M.A.); (M.H.); Tel.: +48-81-448-7026 (A.P.)
| | - Sepideh Zununi Vahed
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614756, Iran; (S.M.H.K.); (S.Z.V.)
| | - Mahbuba Valiyeva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Management, Azerbaijan Medical University, AZ 1022 Baku, Azerbaijan; (M.V.); (S.M.)
| | - Sevil Mehraliyeva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Management, Azerbaijan Medical University, AZ 1022 Baku, Azerbaijan; (M.V.); (S.M.)
| | - Rovshan Khalilov
- Russian Institute for Advanced Study, Moscow State Pedagogical University, 1/1, Malaya Pirogovskaya St., 119991 Moscow, Russia;
- Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Baku State University, AZ 1148 Baku, Azerbaijan
- Institute of Radiation Problems, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, AZ 1001 Baku, Azerbaijan
| | - Mohammad Hasanzadeh
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614756, Iran
- Correspondence: (E.A.); (A.P.); (M.A.); (M.H.); Tel.: +48-81-448-7026 (A.P.)
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Pan M, Tang Z, Tu J, Wang Z, Chen Q, Xiao R, Liu H. Porous chitosan microspheres containing zinc ion for enhanced thrombosis and hemostasis. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2017; 85:27-36. [PMID: 29407154 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Quick hemostats for non-lethal massive traumatic bleeding in battlefield and civilian accidents are important for reducing mortality and medical costs. Chitosan (CS) has been widely used as a clinic hemostat. To enhance its hemostatic efficiency, Zn2+ in the form of zinc alginate (ZnAlg) was introduced to CS to make porous CS@ZnAlg microspheres with ZnAlg component on the surface. Such microspheres were prepared by successive steps of micro-emulsion, polyelectrolyte adhesion, and thermally induced phase separation. Their structure and hemostatic performance were analyzed by SEM, FT-IR, XPS and a series of in vitro hemostatic experiments including thromboelastography analysis. The composite microspheres had an outer and internal interconnected porous structure. Their size, surface area, and water absorption ratio were ca. 70μm, 48m2/g, and 1850%, respectively. Compared to the neat chitosan microspheres, the CS@ZnAlg microspheres showed shorter onset of clot formation, much faster in vitro and in vivo whole blood clotting, bigger clot, less blood loss, and shorter hemostatic time in the rat liver laceration and tail amputation models. The synergetic hemostatic effects from (1) the electrostatic attraction between chitosan component and red blood cells, (2) the activation of coagulation factor XII by Zn2+ of zinc alginate component, and (3) physical blocking by microsphere matrix, contributed to the enhanced hemostatic performance of CS@ZnAlg microspheres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Pan
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fujian 350007, China
| | - Zonghao Tang
- College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University, Fujian 350007, China
| | - Jianbing Tu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fujian 350007, China
| | - Zhengchao Wang
- College of Life Science, Fujian Normal University, Fujian 350007, China.
| | - Qinhui Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fujian 350007, China
| | - Rongdong Xiao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Provincial Clinical College of Fujian Medical University, Fujian 350001, China.
| | - Haiqing Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian Normal University, Fujian 350007, China.
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Modification of a commercial thromboelastography instrument to measure coagulation dynamics with three-dimensional biomaterials. Biointerphases 2016; 11:029602. [PMID: 27126596 DOI: 10.1116/1.4948339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional synthetic constructs with complex geometries have immense potential for use in a multitude of blood-contacting applications. Understanding coagulation phenomena is arguably the most critical aspect for applications involving synthetic biomaterials; however, real-time evaluation of the clot formation while interfacing with these materials is difficult to achieve in a reproducible and robust manner. Here, work representing first steps toward addressing this deficit is presented, wherein modified consumables for a clinical instrument (a Thromboelastograph(®)) have been fabricated. Thromboelastography (TEG) measures viscoelastic properties throughout clot formation and therefore provides clinically relevant coagulation measurements in real time (i.e., kinetics and strength of clot formation). Through our modification, TEG consumables can readily accommodate three-dimensional materials (e.g., those for regenerative tissue applications). The authors performed proof-of-concept experiments using polymer scaffolds with a range of surface properties and demonstrated that variations in surface properties resulted in differences in blood plasma coagulation dynamics. For example, the maximum rate of thrombus generation ranged from 22.2 ± 2.2 (dyn/cm(2))/s for fluorocarbon coated scaffolds to 8.7 ± 1.0 (dyn/cm(2))/s for nitrogen-containing scaffolds. Through this work, the ability to make real-time coagulation activity measurements during constant coagulation factor interface with biomedically relevant materials is demonstrated.
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Farrán A, Cai C, Sandoval M, Xu Y, Liu J, Hernáiz MJ, Linhardt RJ. Green solvents in carbohydrate chemistry: from raw materials to fine chemicals. Chem Rev 2015; 115:6811-53. [PMID: 26121409 DOI: 10.1021/cr500719h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Angeles Farrán
- †Departamento de Química Orgánica y Bio-Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Paseo Senda del Rey 4, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Chao Cai
- ‡Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs of Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Manuel Sandoval
- §Escuela de Química, Universidad Nacional of Costa Rica, Post Office Box 86, 3000 Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Yongmei Xu
- ∥Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Jian Liu
- ∥Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - María J Hernáiz
- ▽Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Pz/Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Šimkovic I. Unexplored possibilities of all-polysaccharide composites. Carbohydr Polym 2013; 95:697-715. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Park TJ, Kim YS, Hwang T, Govindaiah P, Choi SW, Kim E, Won K, Lee SH, Kim JH. Preparation and characterization of heparinized multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Process Biochem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2011.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Shankarraman V, Davis-Gorman G, Copeland JG, Caplan MR, McDonagh PF. Standardized methods to quantify thrombogenicity of blood-contacting materials via thromboelastography. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2011; 100:230-8. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.31942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Lee SH, Miyauchi M, Dordick JS, Linhardt RJ. Preparation of Biopolymer-Based Materials Using Ionic Liquids for the Biomedical Application. ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES 2010. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2010-1038.ch010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sang Hyun Lee
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
| | - Minoru Miyauchi
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
| | - Jonathan S. Dordick
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Department of Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, New York 12180
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Liebert
- Centre of Excellence for Polysaccharide Research, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, D-07743 Jena, Germany
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Possidonio S, Fidale LC, El Seoud OA. Microwave-assisted derivatization of cellulose in an ionic liquid: An efficient, expedient synthesis of simple and mixed carboxylic esters. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.23770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Fidale LC, Possidonio S, El Seoud OA. Application of 1-Allyl-3-(1-butyl)imidazolium Chloride in the Synthesis of Cellulose Esters: Properties of the Ionic Liquid, and Comparison with Other Solvents. Macromol Biosci 2009; 9:813-21. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.200900034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Abstract
Complex natural polysaccharides, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), are a class of ubiquitous macromolecules that exhibit a wide range of biological functions and participate and regulate multiple cellular events and (patho)physiological processes. They are generally present either as free chains (hyaluronic acid and bacterial acidic polysaccharides) or as side chains of proteoglycans (PGs; chondroitin/dermatan sulfate, heparin/heparan sulfate, and keratan sulfate) and are most often found in cell membranes and in the extracellular matrix. The recent emergence of modern analytical tools for their study has produced a virtual explosion in the field of glycomics. CE, due to its high resolving power and sensitivity, has been useful in the analysis of intact GAGs and GAG-derived oligosaccharides and disaccharides affording concentration and structural characterization data essential for understanding the biological functions of GAGs. In this review, novel off-line and on-line CE-MS and MS/MS methods for screening of GAG-derived oligosaccharides and disaccharides will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Volpi
- Department of Biologia Animale, Biological Chemistry Section, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.
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Park TJ, Lee SH, Simmons TJ, Martin JG, Mousa SA, Snezhkova EA, Sarnatskaya VV, Nikolaev VG, Linhardt RJ. Heparin–cellulose–charcoal composites for drug detoxification prepared using room temperature ionic liquids. Chem Commun (Camb) 2008:5022-4. [DOI: 10.1039/b809791g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
There is strong recent interest in ultrathin, flexible, safe energy storage devices to meet the various design and power needs of modern gadgets. To build such fully flexible and robust electrochemical devices, multiple components with specific electrochemical and interfacial properties need to be integrated into single units. Here we show that these basic components, the electrode, separator, and electrolyte, can all be integrated into single contiguous nanocomposite units that can serve as building blocks for a variety of thin mechanically flexible energy storage devices. Nanoporous cellulose paper embedded with aligned carbon nanotube electrode and electrolyte constitutes the basic unit. The units are used to build various flexible supercapacitor, battery, hybrid, and dual-storage battery-in-supercapacitor devices. The thin freestanding nanocomposite paper devices offer complete mechanical flexibility during operation. The supercapacitors operate with electrolytes including aqueous solvents, room temperature ionic liquids, and bioelectrolytes and over record temperature ranges. These easy-to-assemble integrated nanocomposite energy-storage systems could provide unprecedented design ingenuity for a variety of devices operating over a wide range of temperature and environmental conditions.
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Pushparaj VL, Shaijumon MM, Kumar A, Murugesan S, Ci L, Vajtai R, Linhardt RJ, Nalamasu O, Ajayan PM. Flexible energy storage devices based on nanocomposite paper. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:13574-7. [PMID: 17699622 PMCID: PMC1959422 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0706508104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 432] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There is strong recent interest in ultrathin, flexible, safe energy storage devices to meet the various design and power needs of modern gadgets. To build such fully flexible and robust electrochemical devices, multiple components with specific electrochemical and interfacial properties need to be integrated into single units. Here we show that these basic components, the electrode, separator, and electrolyte, can all be integrated into single contiguous nanocomposite units that can serve as building blocks for a variety of thin mechanically flexible energy storage devices. Nanoporous cellulose paper embedded with aligned carbon nanotube electrode and electrolyte constitutes the basic unit. The units are used to build various flexible supercapacitor, battery, hybrid, and dual-storage battery-in-supercapacitor devices. The thin freestanding nanocomposite paper devices offer complete mechanical flexibility during operation. The supercapacitors operate with electrolytes including aqueous solvents, room temperature ionic liquids, and bioelectrolytes and over record temperature ranges. These easy-to-assemble integrated nanocomposite energy-storage systems could provide unprecedented design ingenuity for a variety of devices operating over a wide range of temperature and environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Saravanababu Murugesan
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, and Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies
| | - Lijie Ci
- Departments of *Materials Science and Engineering and
| | - Robert Vajtai
- Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, and Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies
| | | | - Pulickel M. Ajayan
- Departments of *Materials Science and Engineering and
- Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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