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Wang XZ, Lawson B, Brewer JW, Zinszner H, Sanjay A, Mi LJ, Boorstein R, Kreibich G, Hendershot LM, Ron D. Signals from the stressed endoplasmic reticulum induce C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP/GADD153). Mol Cell Biol 1996; 16:4273-80. [PMID: 8754828 PMCID: PMC231426 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.16.8.4273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 557] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The gene encoding C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP), also known as growth arrest and DNA-damage-inducible gene 153 (GADD153), is activated by agents that adversely affect the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Because of the pleiotropic effects of such agents on other cellular processes, the role of ER stress in inducing CHOP gene expression has remained unclear. We find that cells with conditional (temperature-sensitive) defects in protein glycosylation (CHO K12 and BHK tsBN7) induce CHOP when cultured at the nonpermissive temperature. In addition, cells that are defective in initiating the ER stress response, because of overexpression of an exogenous ER chaperone, BiP/GRP78, exhibit attenuated inducibility of CHOP. Surprisingly, attenuated induction of CHOP was also noted in BiP-overexpressing cells treated with methyl methanesulfonate, an agent thought to activate CHOP by causing DNA damage. The roles of DNA damage and growth arrest in the induction of CHOP were therefore reexamined. Induction of growth arrest by culture to confluence or treatment with the enzymatic inhibitor N-(phosphonacetyl)-L-aspartate did not induce CHOP. Furthermore, both a DNA-damage-causing nucleoside analog (5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine) and UV light alone did not induce CHOP. These results suggest that CHOP is more responsive to ER stress than to growth arrest or DNA damage and indicate a potential role for CHOP in linking stress in the ER to alterations in gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Z Wang
- Department of Medicine, NYU Medical Center, New York 10016, USA
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2
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Identification of a 70-base-pair cell cycle regulatory unit within the promoter of the human thymidine kinase gene and its interaction with cellular factors. Mol Cell Biol 1991. [PMID: 2005912 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.11.4.2296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The promoter of the human thymidine kinase gene contains cis-regulatory elements responsible for its cell-cycle-regulated expression. We report here that a 70-bp region between -133 and -64 is sufficient to confer cell cycle regulation on a heterologous promoter. The 20-bp region between -64 and -83, which contains an inverted CCAAT motif, is important for transcriptional stimulation of this functional unit. The sequence of this CCAAT motif is nearly identical to the consensus sequence for the transcriptional factor CP1. We also examined the specificity and binding activities of cellular factors interacting with the 70-bp fragment. We showed that the cellular factors binding to the 70-bp region are similar during the G1, S, and G2 phases, suggesting that the cell cycle regulatory activity observed must involve processes other than factor binding to the DNA.
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Kim YK, Lee AS. Identification of a 70-base-pair cell cycle regulatory unit within the promoter of the human thymidine kinase gene and its interaction with cellular factors. Mol Cell Biol 1991; 11:2296-302. [PMID: 2005912 PMCID: PMC359933 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.11.4.2296-2302.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The promoter of the human thymidine kinase gene contains cis-regulatory elements responsible for its cell-cycle-regulated expression. We report here that a 70-bp region between -133 and -64 is sufficient to confer cell cycle regulation on a heterologous promoter. The 20-bp region between -64 and -83, which contains an inverted CCAAT motif, is important for transcriptional stimulation of this functional unit. The sequence of this CCAAT motif is nearly identical to the consensus sequence for the transcriptional factor CP1. We also examined the specificity and binding activities of cellular factors interacting with the 70-bp fragment. We showed that the cellular factors binding to the 70-bp region are similar during the G1, S, and G2 phases, suggesting that the cell cycle regulatory activity observed must involve processes other than factor binding to the DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y K Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles 90033
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Depletion of topoisomerase II in isolated nuclei during a glucose-regulated stress response. Mol Cell Biol 1989. [PMID: 2552289 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.9.8.3284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Conditions, such as anoxia or glucose starvation, which induce the glucose-regulated set of stress proteins also lead to resistance to adriamycin (J. Shen, C. Hughes, C. Chao, J. Cai, C. Bartels, T. Gessner, and J. Subjeck, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:3278-3282, 1987) and etoposide. We report here that chronic anoxia, glucose starvation, 2-deoxyglucose, the calcium ionophore A23187, glucosamine, ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA), and tunicamycin (all specific inducers of the glucose regulated system) lead to a rapid and selective depletion of topoisomerase II from isolated nuclei of Chinese hamster ovary cells. This effect precedes a decline in tritiated thymidine incorporation and a redistribution of cells from S into G1/G0. The depletion of the enzyme is not accompanied by a decline in mRNA levels. We have also examined the mutant Chinese hamster K12 cell line which is temperature sensitive for expression of glucose-regulated proteins. When nuclei were isolated from K12 cells incubated at the nonpermissive temperature, a loss of topoisomerase II was again observed in congruence with the expression of stress proteins and cellular resistance to etoposide. These changes were not obtained in parental Wg1A cells incubated at the same temperature. These studies indicate that topoisomerase II is highly sensitive to glucose-regulated stresses and that its depletion from the nucleus, with the associated changes in cell cycle parameters, may represent general characteristics of the glucose-regulated state. Since anoxia and glucose starvation can occur during tumor development, this pathway for expression of drug resistance may have clinical ramifications.
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Shen JW, Subjeck JR, Lock RB, Ross WE. Depletion of topoisomerase II in isolated nuclei during a glucose-regulated stress response. Mol Cell Biol 1989; 9:3284-91. [PMID: 2552289 PMCID: PMC362372 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.9.8.3284-3291.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Conditions, such as anoxia or glucose starvation, which induce the glucose-regulated set of stress proteins also lead to resistance to adriamycin (J. Shen, C. Hughes, C. Chao, J. Cai, C. Bartels, T. Gessner, and J. Subjeck, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:3278-3282, 1987) and etoposide. We report here that chronic anoxia, glucose starvation, 2-deoxyglucose, the calcium ionophore A23187, glucosamine, ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA), and tunicamycin (all specific inducers of the glucose regulated system) lead to a rapid and selective depletion of topoisomerase II from isolated nuclei of Chinese hamster ovary cells. This effect precedes a decline in tritiated thymidine incorporation and a redistribution of cells from S into G1/G0. The depletion of the enzyme is not accompanied by a decline in mRNA levels. We have also examined the mutant Chinese hamster K12 cell line which is temperature sensitive for expression of glucose-regulated proteins. When nuclei were isolated from K12 cells incubated at the nonpermissive temperature, a loss of topoisomerase II was again observed in congruence with the expression of stress proteins and cellular resistance to etoposide. These changes were not obtained in parental Wg1A cells incubated at the same temperature. These studies indicate that topoisomerase II is highly sensitive to glucose-regulated stresses and that its depletion from the nucleus, with the associated changes in cell cycle parameters, may represent general characteristics of the glucose-regulated state. Since anoxia and glucose starvation can occur during tumor development, this pathway for expression of drug resistance may have clinical ramifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Shen
- Division of Radiation Biology, Roswell Park Memorial Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263
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Feige JJ, Keller GA, Scheffler IE. Temperature-sensitive Chinese hamster cell mutant with a defect in glycoprotein synthesis: accumulation of the EGF receptor in the endoplasmic reticulum and the role of the glucose-regulated protein GRP78. J Cell Physiol 1988; 136:33-42. [PMID: 3294237 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1041360105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
A temperature-sensitive mutant of Chinese hamster fibroblasts with a defect in glycoprotein synthesis is investigated after transfection and amplification of the gene for the human EGF receptor. We demonstrate that at the nonpermissive temperature a partially glycosylated species of the receptor accumulates in the endoplasmic reticulum. The oligosaccharides present are the high mannose types, since they can be removed completely by treatment with endoglycosidase H. Pulse-chase experiments show that the abnormal species of the receptor cannot be chased to a form that is either resistant to endoglycosidase H, or altered in its mobility on SDS polyacrylamide gels. The abnormal species of the receptor appears within the first hour of a shift to the nonpermissive temperature, and no further changes are observed upon prolonged incubation of cells at 40 degrees C. However, after 3-4 hours immunoprecipitations of the receptor yield another protein, which has properties very similar, if not identical, to the glucose-regulated protein GRP78. The induction of this protein at 40 degrees C can be suppressed completely with an inhibitor of RNA synthesis, without any effect on the glycosylation defect, or on the accumulation of the EGF receptor in the endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Feige
- Department of Biology, University of California, San Diego 92093
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Feige JJ, Scheffler IE. Analysis of the protein glycosylation defect of a temperature-sensitive cell cycle mutant by the use of mutant cells overexpressing the human epidermal growth factor receptor after transfection of the gene. J Cell Physiol 1987; 133:461-70. [PMID: 3121640 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1041330306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
A temperature-sensitive mutant with a defect in glycoprotein synthesis and a cell cycle (G1)-specific arrest at the nonpermissive temperature (Tenner et al., J. Cell. Physiol., 90:145-160, 1977; Tenner and Scheffler, J. Cell. Physiol., 98:251-266, 1979) was investigated further after a human epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor gene had been transfected and amplified in these cells. While a temperature shift-up lead to an immediate arrest in the biosynthesis of mature EGF receptor and its appearance on the plasma membrane, the observed turnover of the preexisting receptor was too slow to account for the arrest of DNA synthesis in these mutant cells. Tunicamycin could in fact mimic the effect of a temperature shift on the biosynthesis of EGF receptor, but it did not have the same rapid effect on DNA synthesis and cell cycle progression. These mutants have also been shown to induce a set of stress proteins or glucose-regulated proteins, GRPs (Lee et al., J. Cell. Physiol., 129:277-282, 1986). The question is addressed whether the defect in glycoprotein synthesis is the primary defect and a possible cause of the induction of the GRPs, or whether a more basic defect at the level of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is responsible for the complex phenotype of the mutant. Our results argue in favor of a primary defect which indirectly affects N-linked glycosylation of proteins, as well as several other functions associated with the ER. We hypothesize that the defect affects the calcium distribution between ER and cytosol, since the calcium ionophore A23187 has an effect similar to that of a temperature shift.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Feige
- Department of Biology, University of California, San Diego 92093
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Kim YK, Kim KS, Lee AS. Regulation of the glucose-regulated protein genes by beta-mercaptoethanol requires de novo protein synthesis and correlates with inhibition of protein glycosylation. J Cell Physiol 1987; 133:553-9. [PMID: 3693412 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1041330317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Treatment of hamster fibroblasts with the sulfhydryl-reducing agent beta-mercaptoethanol (beta-ME) results in increased synthesis of the glucose-regulated proteins (GRPs). The most abundant protein species being induced is the GRP78, with a minor increase also observed for GRP94. The enhanced synthesis of the GRP94 and GRP78 is primarily due to an increase in the steady state levels of the two GRP transcripts. Although beta-ME has a general inhibitive affect on amino acid uptake and protein synthesis, compared to other protein synthesis inhibitors such as cycloheximide, puromycin, and amino acid analogue canavanine, beta-ME is a more potent inducer of GRP gene expression. In addition, the induction by low dosage of beta-ME requires de novo protein synthesis and is preceded by a drop in the rate of protein glycosylation. Our results support the hypothesis that denatured proteins can induce the GRP genes; however, a blockage of some post-translocational processing step in the endoplasmic reticulum, as a result of beta-ME or other stress treatments, may provide the additional stimulation which transcriptionally activates the GRP genes to high levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y K Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles 90033
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Chang SC, Wooden SK, Nakaki T, Kim YK, Lin AY, Kung L, Attenello JW, Lee AS. Rat gene encoding the 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein GRP78: its regulatory sequences and the effect of protein glycosylation on its expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987; 84:680-4. [PMID: 3468506 PMCID: PMC304279 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.84.3.680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein GRP78 is a stress-inducible protein ubiquitously expressed in animal cells. In this paper we show that the first exon of this endoplasmic reticulum-localized protein consists of an 18 amino acid leader sequence rich in hydrophobic residues, followed by a highly acidic mature N-terminus and an 11 amino acid domain that is shared by members of the 70-kDa heat shock protein family. The end of this shared domain also marks the beginning of the first intron of this gene. A DNA region upstream of the promoter element important for induction by calcium ionophore and by a temperature-sensitive mutation was identified by deletion analysis. Our results indicate that a region spanning from 85 to 480 nucleotides upstream of the major transcription initiation site is important for both induction conditions. With evidence suggesting that perturbations in protein glycosylation may be one of the common stimuli involved in transcription activation of the GRPs, we measured the rate of glycosylation during A23187, glucose starvation, and temperature-shift induced conditions. The inverse correlation observed between the rate of glycosylation and the steady-state level of the GRP78 transcripts lends support to this hypothesis.
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Lee AS. Coordinated regulation of a set of genes by glucose and calcium ionophores in mammalian cells. Trends Biochem Sci 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/0968-0004(87)90011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Lee AS, Wells S, Kim KS, Scheffler IE. Enhanced synthesis of the glucose/calcium-regulated proteins in a hamster cell mutant deficient in transfer of oligosaccharide core to polypeptides. J Cell Physiol 1986; 129:277-82. [PMID: 3782307 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1041290302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The properties of two Chinese hamster temperature-sensitive mutants, K12 and H3.5, were examined. Both mutants originated from the same parental cell line, Wg1A, and were isolated as cell cycle mutants arrested in G1. Previously, we had been shown that the H3.5 ts mutation affected the transfer of the oligosaccharide from the lipid carrier to the nascent polypeptide and that the K12 ts mutation regulated the transcription of two glucose/calcium-regulated genes. We report here that these two mutants exhibit almost identical phenotypes at the biochemical level. Furthermore, a genetic complementation test demonstrates that the two ts lesions must be closely related, or even identical. Our results suggest that a specific defect in glycosylation may result in the overproduction of the glucose/calcium-regulated proteins and is capable of activating the promoter of the major glucose-regulated gene.
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Cairo G, Bardella L, Schiaffonati L, Bernelli-Zazzera A. Synthesis of heat shock proteins in rat liver after ischemia and hyperthermia. Hepatology 1985; 5:357-61. [PMID: 2581879 DOI: 10.1002/hep.1840050303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Ischemia of rat liver is followed by recovery or cell death. Since heat shock proteins may be essential to cell survival under stress, we determined levels of heat shock proteins in liver after different periods of blood deprivation and correlated the results with cellular recovery. Cell-free synthesis by poly (A+)-mRNA and polysomes revealed 70 and 89 kd proteins which appear similar to proteins produced by the liver of rats with amphetamine-induced hyperthermia. The 70 and 89 kd proteins increased in the liver of rats which recovered from ischemia.
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Abstract
Isolation of specialized cell types for the analysis of tissue-specific gene function often results in loss of the differentiated phenotype. Examples of this type of phenotypic change following tissue disaggregation are reviewed together with possible explanations. Close similarities between the effects of cell isolation with those of other cellular stresses such as heat or anoxia point to common biochemical mechanisms being involved. This suggests that the study of freshly isolated cells will contribute significantly to out understanding of the nature of cellular stress and its consequences for the maintenance of phenotype and induction of tissue specific gene expression.
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Biochemical characterization of the 94- and 78-kilodalton glucose-regulated proteins in hamster fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)43091-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Lin AY, Lee AS. Induction of two genes by glucose starvation in hamster fibroblasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1984; 81:988-92. [PMID: 6583707 PMCID: PMC344748 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.81.4.988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The coordinated expression of two genes specifically induced by glucose starvation is demonstrated in a hamster fibroblast cell line, K12. Using two cDNA plasmids, p4A3 and p3C5, as hybridization probes, we examine the kinetics of induction of these genes when the cells are grown in medium deprived of glucose. The results show that (i) after a lag period of about 8 hr, there is a rapid and simultaneous increase of the p4A3 and p3C5 mRNA levels and (ii) the elevation of the mRNA levels for p4A3 and p3C5 is largely due to new transcription. In addition, we compare the mRNA transcripts encoded by these glucose-regulated genes in culture cells and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, the enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limiting step in gluconeogenesis in fasted rats. Our results indicate that the expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase is not inducible by glucose starvation in our culture cells.
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Carlsson L, Lazarides E. ADP-ribosylation of the Mr 83,000 stress-inducible and glucose-regulated protein in avian and mammalian cells: modulation by heat shock and glucose starvation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1983; 80:4664-8. [PMID: 6576354 PMCID: PMC384104 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.80.15.4664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation of proteins was analyzed by in vivo labeling of cells with [3H]adenosine, followed by separation of their protein components by two-dimensional isoelectric focusing/NaDodSO4 polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. We show here that in several cell types of avian and mammalian origin the major [34H]adenosine acceptor in vivo is a polypeptide with a Mr of 83,000 and isoelectric point of approximately equal to 5.3. This polypeptide is identical to one of the stress-inducible and glucose-regulated proteins (here called SP83) previously described in avian and mammalian cells. Snake venom phosphodiesterase digestion of purified 3H-labeled SP83 releases 5'-AMP and a minor fraction of 2'-(5"-phosphoribosyl)-5-AMP. In vitro labeling with [32P]NAD+ of total cell lysates made in the presence of non-ionic detergents also results in incorporation of radioactivity into SP83. Both of these results strongly suggest that the modification is an ADP-ribosylation. Heat shock and glucose starvation of cells induce a rapid and extensive decrease in the incorporation of ADP-ribose into SP83, suggesting that ADP-ribosylation may be important for the regulation of the function of this protein.
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Lee AS, Delegeane AM, Baker V, Chow PC. Transcriptional regulation of two genes specifically induced by glucose starvation in a hamster mutant fibroblast cell line. J Biol Chem 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)33296-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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