Rap1 and p38 MAPK mediate 8-chloro-cAMP-induced growth inhibition in mouse fibroblast DT cells

SHC1 sensitizes cancer cells to the 8-Cl-cAMP treatment

8-Chloro-cyclic AMP (8-Cl-cAMP) is a cyclic AMP analog that induces growth inhibition and apoptosis in a broad spectrum of cancer cells. Previously, we found that 8-Cl-cAMP-induced growth inhibition is mediated by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) as well as p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK). To identify downstream mediators of the 8-Cl-cAMP signaling, we performed co-immunoprecipitation combined with mass spectrometry using the anti-AMPK or p38 MAPK antibodies. Through this approach, SHC1 was identified as one of the binding partners of p38 MAPK. SHC1 phosphorylation was suppressed by 8-Cl-cAMP in HeLa and MCF7 cancer cells, which was mediated by its metabolites, 8-Cl-adenosine and 8-Cl-ATP; however, 8-Cl-cAMP showed no effect on SHC1 phosphorylation in normal human fibroblasts. SHC1 siRNA induced AMPK and p38 MAPK phosphorylation and growth inhibition in cancer cells, and SHC1 overexpression re-sensitized human foreskin fibroblasts to the 8-Cl-cAMP treatment. SHC1 phosphorylation was unaffected by Compound C (an AMPK inhibitor) and SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor), which suggests that SHC1 is upstream of AMPK and p38 MAPK in the 8-Cl-cAMP-stimulated signaling cascade. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that SHC1 functions as a sensor during the 8-Cl-cAMP-induced growth inhibition in SHC1-overexpressing cancer cells.

Transforming growth factor β2 promotes transcription of COX2 and EP4, leading to a prostaglandin E2-driven autostimulatory loop that enhances virulence of Theileria annulata-transformed macrophages

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a pleiotropic cytokine known to regulate cell growth, differentiation, and motility and is a potent modulator of immune function. TGF-β consequently plays a central role in carcinogenesis, and a dampened TGF-β2 response by Theileria annulata-infected monocytes/macrophages underpins disease resistance to tropical theileriosis. Here, we show that concomitant with the loss of TGF-β2 production, there is ablated expression of COX2 and EP4, which leads to a drop in cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels and, consequently, reduced activation of protein kinase A (PKA) and EPAC. This ablated phenotype can be rescued in attenuated macrophages by the addition of exogenous TGF-β2, which reactivates the expression of COX2 and EP4 while repressing that of protein kinase inhibitor gamma (PKIG) to the levels in virulent macrophages. TGF-β2 therefore promotes the adhesion and invasiveness of virulent macrophages by modulating COX2, EP4, and PKIG transcription to initiate a prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-driven autostimulatory loop that augments PKA and EPAC activities. A virulence phenotype stemming from the double activation of PKA and EPAC is the induction of a CREB-mediated transcriptional program and the upregulation of JAM-L- and integrin 4αβ1-mediated adhesion of Theileria-infected macrophages.

EPAC2-mediated calreticulin regulates LIF and COX2 expression in human endometrial glandular cells

The proper production of the implantation-related factors, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2, PTGS2), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the uterine glands is essential for embryo implantation and the establishment of endometrial receptivity. It has been shown that cAMP-mediated protein kinase A (PKA) signaling regulates the production of these factors. We have previously reported that exchange protein directly activated by cAMP 2 (EPAC2, RAPGEF4), another cAMP mediator, is involved in the differentiation of endometrial stromal cells through the regulation of the expression of calreticulin (CALR). To address whether EPAC2-CALR signaling is involved in the expression of implantation-related factors, we examined the effect of EPAC2 and CALR knockdown on their expression in cultured human endometrial glandular epithelial EM1 cells, treated with forskolin, an adenylyl cyclase activator, an EPAC-selective cAMP analog (8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-2'-O-methyl cAMP (CPT)), or a PKA-selective cAMP analog (N(6)-phenyl-cAMP (Phe)). In addition, the status of cell senescence was examined. EPAC2 knockdown suppressed the expression of CALR protein and mRNA in EM1 cells. Forskolin- or Phe-, but not CPT-, induced expression of LIF or PTGS2 and secretion of PGE2 was inhibited in EPAC2- or CALR-silenced EM1 cells. In addition, knockdown of EPAC2 or CALR increased senescence-associated beta galactosidase activity and expression of p21 but decreased expression of p53. These findings indicate that expression of CALR regulated by EPAC2 in endometrial glandular epithelial cells is critical for the expression of LIF and PTGS2-mediated production of PGE2 through cAMP signaling. Furthermore, EPAC2 and CALR could play a role in the maintenance of gland function.

Possible roles of the cAMP-mediators EPAC and RAP1 in decidualization of rat uterus

The optimal decidualization of endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) following embryo implantation is one of the critical steps to establish pregnancy in rodents and humans. This step is intricately regulated by ovarian hormones. Using in vitro human ESCs model, we previously showed that activation of a cAMP mediator, exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC), promotes ovarian steroid- or cAMP analog-induced decidualization. However, expressions and functions of EPAC and RAP1 in the uterus during pregnancy have not yet been examined. In this study, we found that the expression of EPAC2 and RAP1 was markedly upregulated in the decidual cells at the implantation sites on days 7 and 9 of pregnancy in rats. Furthermore, both delayed-implantation and artificial decidualization models showed that EPAC2 and RAP1 expression was enhanced in decidual cells. Significant activation of cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB), a central transcriptional factor of cAMP signaling, was observed in decidual cells. These spatiotemporal expressions of protein related EPAC pathway are overlapped by sites with activated cAMP signaling, indicating the association of EPAC signaling with decidualization. Strikingly, further studies in in vitro rat decidualization model showed that the cAMP analog and medroxyprogesterone stimulated the expression of decidual markers, while knockdown of EPAC1/2 and RAP1 attenuated the expressions of these markers. Together, these findings suggest that EPAC and RAP1 are the crucial factors for endometrial decidualization in rat pregnancy.

The role of exchange protein directly activated by cyclic AMP 2-mediated calreticulin expression in the decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells

Decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) accompanied by the production of prolactin (PRL) and IGF-binding protein (IGFBP) 1 and rounded-cell morphology is indispensable for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. Protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated cAMP signaling is known to be crucial for decidualization. We previously reported that activation of a cAMP mediator, called Exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC) promotes cAMP analog- or ovarian steroid-induced decidualization in cultured human ESCs. In addition, small interfering RNA-mediated knock-down of the EPAC subtypes, EPAC1 or EPAC2, or knock-down of Rap1, a downstream factor of EPAC signaling, blocked functional and morphological decidualization of ESCs. However, factors downstream of EPAC2 other than Rap1 have not been determined. The present study was undertaken to identify additional downstream targets of EPAC2 associated with decidualization. Using proteomic analysis, we identified calreticulin (CRT) as a potential target of EPAC2. Knock-down of CRT expression in cultured ESCs significantly inhibited PKA-selective cAMP analog- or PKA-selective cAMP analog plus EPAC-selective cAMP analog-induced PRL and IGFBP1 expression. Furthermore, CRT knock-down suppressed the ovarian steroid-stimulated PRL and IGFBP1 expression and morphological differentiation, and silencing of EPAC2 or CRT significantly increased senescence-associated β-galactosidase activity with enhanced p21 expression and decreased p53 expression. These results suggest that EPAC2 and CRT are associated with cellular senescence in ESCs. In conclusion, we demonstrate here that EPAC2-mediated CRT expression is essential for the functional and morphological differentiation of ESCs into decidual cells. Furthermore, both EPAC2 and CRT might prevent ESCs from undergoing abnormal cellular senescence during decidualization.

Involvement of Akt2/protein kinase B β (PKBβ) in the 8-Cl-cAMP-induced cancer cell growth inhibition

8-chloro-cyclic AMP (8-Cl-cAMP), which induces differentiation, growth inhibition, and apoptosis in various cancer cells, has been investigated as a putative anti-cancer drug. However, the exact mechanism of 8-Cl-cAMP functioning in cancer cells is not fully understood. Akt/protein kinase B (PKB) genes (Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3) encode enzymes belonging to the serine/threonine-specific protein kinase family. It has been suggested that Akt/PKB enhances cell survival by inhibiting apoptosis. Recently, we showed that 8-Cl-cAMP and 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside (AICAR) inhibited cancer cell growth through the activation of AMPK and p38 MAPK. Therefore, we anticipated that the phosphorylation of Akt/PKB would be decreased upon treatment with 8-Cl-cAMP. However, treatment with 8-Cl-cAMP and AICAR induced the phosphorylation of Akt/PKB, which was inhibited by ABT702 (an adenosine kinase inhibitor) and NBTI (an adenosine transporter inhibitor). Furthermore, whereas Compound C (an AMPK inhibitor), AMPK-DN (AMPK-dominant negative) mutant, and SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor) did not block the 8-Cl-cAMP-induced phosphorylation of Akt/PKB, TCN (an Akt1/2/3 specific inhibitor) and an Akt2/PKBβ-targeted siRNA inhibited the 8-Cl-cAMP- and AICAR-mediated phosphorylation of AMPK and p38 MAPK. TCN also reversed the growth inhibition mediated by 8-Cl-cAMP and AICAR. Moreover, an Akt1/PKBα-targeted siRNA did not reduce the phosphorylation of AMPK and p38 MAPK after treatment with 8-Cl-cAMP. These results suggest that Akt2/PKBβ activation promotes the phosphorylation of AMPK and p38 MAPK during the 8-Cl-cAMP- and AICAR-induced growth inhibition.

Small G protein signaling in neuronal plasticity and memory formation: the specific role of ras family proteins

Small G proteins are an extensive family of proteins that bind and hydrolyze GTP. They are ubiquitous inside cells, regulating a wide range of cellular processes. Recently, many studies have examined the role of small G proteins, particularly the Ras family of G proteins, in memory formation. Once thought to be primarily involved in the transduction of a variety of extracellular signals during development, it is now clear that Ras family proteins also play critical roles in molecular processing underlying neuronal and behavioral plasticity. We here review a number of recent studies that explore how the signaling of Ras family proteins contributes to memory formation. Understanding these signaling processes is of fundamental importance both from a basic scientific perspective, with the goal of providing mechanistic insights into a critical aspect of cognitive behavior, and from a clinical perspective, with the goal of providing effective therapies for a range of disorders involving cognitive impairments.

A study on the genotoxic effects of 8-Cl-cAMP on human lymphocytes in vitro

8-chloro-cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (8-Cl-cAMP) is the most potent cAMP analogue that selectively inhibits a variety of cancer cell lines in vitro and tumors in vivo. Its action toward a variety of tumors, especially when coupled with other antitumor agents, have lead to phase I clinical investigations and recently phase II clinical investigations. Until today very little was done to evaluate its genotoxic potential. In order to evaluate its genotoxic potential we used the cytogenetic and cytokinesis block micronucleus assay in vitro on peripheral blood lymphocytes of healthy individuals. Using three concentrations (1 microM, 5 microM and 15 microM), 8-Cl-cAMP in normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes did not induce any cytogenetic aberrations of the structural type [chromatid breakage, isochromatid breakage and gaps], but did induce premature centromere separation (PCS) in all respective doses and increased the frequency of micronuclei (p <0.05) only in the highest dose (15 microM). Antiproliferative action of 8-Cl-cAMP was estimated by using the cytokinesis block nuclear division index (NDI). The results showed a decrease in the NDI of cells exposed to all doses of 8-Cl-cAMP when compared to control. Therefore, the overall results show a genotoxic potential of 8-Cl-cAMP in peripheral blood lymphocytes in vitro.

G protein regulation of MAPK networks

G proteins provide signal-coupling mechanisms to heptahelical cell surface receptors and are critically involved in the regulation of different mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) networks. The four classes of G proteins, defined by the G(s), G(i), G(q) and G(12) families, regulate ERK1/2, JNK, p38MAPK, ERK5 and ERK6 modules by different mechanisms. The alpha- as well as betagamma-subunits are involved in the regulation of these MAPK modules in a context-specific manner. While the alpha- and betagamma-subunits primarily regulate the MAPK pathways via their respective effector-mediated signaling pathways, recent studies have unraveled several novel signaling intermediates including receptor tyrosine kinases and small GTPases through which these G-protein subunits positively as well as negatively regulate specific MAPK modules. Multiple mechanisms together with specific scaffold proteins that can link G-protein-coupled receptors or G proteins to distinct MAPK modules contribute to the context-specific and spatio-temporal regulation of mitogen-activated protein signaling networks by G proteins.