The MOZ histone acetyltransferase in epigenetic signaling and disease

Histone acetyltransferases and histone deacetyl transferases play crucial role during oogenesis and early embryo development

Dynamic epigenetic regulation is critical for proper oogenesis and early embryo development. During oogenesis, fully grown germinal vesicle oocytes develop to mature Metaphase II oocytes which are ready for fertilization. Fertilized oocyte proliferates mitotically until blastocyst formation and the process is called early embryo development. Throughout oogenesis and early embryo development, spatio-temporal gene expression takes place, and this dynamic gene expression is controlled with the aid of epigenetics. Epigenetic means that gene expression can be altered without changing DNA itself. Epigenome is regulated through DNA methylation and histone modifications. While DNA methylation generally ends up with repression of gene expression, histone modifications can result in expression or repression depending on type of modification, type of histone protein and its specific residue. One of the modifications is histone acetylation which generally ends up with gene expression. Histone acetylation occurs through the addition of acetyl group onto amino terminal of the core histone proteins by histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Contrarily, histone deacetylation is associated with repression of gene expression, and it is catalyzed by histone deacetylases (HDACs). This review article focuses on what is known about alterations in the expression of HATs and HDACs and emphasizes importance of HATs and HDACs during oogenesis and early embryo development.

Histone H4 proteoforms and post-translational modifications in the Mus musculus brain with quantitative comparison of ages and brain regions

Histone proteins are essential to the regulation of the eukaryotic genome. Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) and single-molecule combinations of these modifications (proteoforms) allow for the regulation of many DNA-templated processes, most notably transcription. Histone H4 is a part of the core histone octamer, which packages DNA into nucleosomes. Top-down proteomics allows for the inquiry of the epigenetic landscape with proteoform-level specificity. Although these approaches are well-demonstrated ex vivo, our knowledge of in vivo histone proteoform biology remains sparse. Here, we demonstrate the first in vivo quantitative top-down analysis of histone H4 and analyze the forebrains and hindbrains of differently aged mice. This reveals novel differences between the mouse forebrain and hindbrain and region-specific changes during adolescence in histone H4 PTMs and proteoforms. At 25 days of age (P25), histone H4 of the hindbrain is more acetylated than the forebrain. At 47 days of age (P47), there are fewer significant differences in histone H4 PTMs and their combinations between regions. Histone H4 of the forebrain is more acetylated in P47 than in P25 forebrains. Hindbrains exhibit the opposite difference with histone H4 of the P25 hindbrain being more acetylated than that of P47 hindbrains. These differences are mainly driven by less abundant hyperacetylated proteoforms. Transcription of histone acetyltransferases such as p300, CBP, and HAT1 is known to be higher in cortical neurons, consistent with the observed acetylation levels. Lysine 20 methylation (K20me1, K20me2, and K20me3) is notably invariant with brain region and age difference.

BRPF1-KAT6A/KAT6B Complex: Molecular Structure, Biological Function and Human Disease

The bromodomain and PHD finger–containing protein1 (BRPF1) is a member of family IV of the bromodomain-containing proteins that participate in the post-translational modification of histones. It functions in the form of a tetrameric complex with a monocytic leukemia zinc finger protein (MOZ or KAT6A), MOZ-related factor (MORF or KAT6B) or HAT bound to ORC1 (HBO1 or KAT7) and two small non-catalytic proteins, the inhibitor of growth 5 (ING5) or the paralog ING4 and MYST/Esa1-associated factor 6 (MEAF6). Mounting studies have demonstrated that all the four core subunits play crucial roles in different biological processes across diverse species, such as embryonic development, forebrain development, skeletal patterning and hematopoiesis. BRPF1, KAT6A and KAT6B mutations were identified as the cause of neurodevelopmental disorders, leukemia, medulloblastoma and other types of cancer, with germline mutations associated with neurodevelopmental disorders displaying intellectual disability, and somatic variants associated with leukemia, medulloblastoma and other cancers. In this paper, we depict the molecular structures and biological functions of the BRPF1-KAT6A/KAT6B complex, summarize the variants of the complex related to neurodevelopmental disorders and cancers and discuss future research directions and therapeutic potentials.

A toolbox for class I HDACs reveals isoform specific roles in gene regulation and protein acetylation

The class I histone deacetylases are essential regulators of cell fate decisions in health and disease. While pan- and class-specific HDAC inhibitors are available, these drugs do not allow a comprehensive understanding of individual HDAC function, or the therapeutic potential of isoform-specific targeting. To systematically compare the impact of individual catalytic functions of HDAC1, HDAC2 and HDAC3, we generated human HAP1 cell lines expressing catalytically inactive HDAC enzymes. Using this genetic toolbox we compare the effect of individual HDAC inhibition with the effects of class I specific inhibitors on cell viability, protein acetylation and gene expression. Individual inactivation of HDAC1 or HDAC2 has only mild effects on cell viability, while HDAC3 inactivation or loss results in DNA damage and apoptosis. Inactivation of HDAC1/HDAC2 led to increased acetylation of components of the COREST co-repressor complex, reduced deacetylase activity associated with this complex and derepression of neuronal genes. HDAC3 controls the acetylation of nuclear hormone receptor associated proteins and the expression of nuclear hormone receptor regulated genes. Acetylation of specific histone acetyltransferases and HDACs is sensitive to inactivation of HDAC1/HDAC2. Over a wide range of assays, we determined that in particular HDAC1 or HDAC2 catalytic inactivation mimics class I specific HDAC inhibitors. Importantly, we further demonstrate that catalytic inactivation of HDAC1 or HDAC2 sensitizes cells to specific cancer drugs. In summary, our systematic study revealed isoform-specific roles of HDAC1/2/3 catalytic functions. We suggest that targeted genetic inactivation of particular isoforms effectively mimics pharmacological HDAC inhibition allowing the identification of relevant HDACs as targets for therapeutic intervention.

Discovery, optimization and evaluation of 1-(indolin-1-yl)ethan-1-ones as novel selective TRIM24/BRPF1 bromodomain inhibitors

TRIM24 (tripartite motif-containing protein 24) and BRPF1 (bromodomain and PHD finger containing protein 1) are epigenetics "readers" and potential therapeutic targets for cancer and other diseases. Here we describe the structure-guided design of 1-(indolin-1-yl)ethan-1-ones as novel TRIM24/BRPF1 bromodomain inhibitors. The representative compound 20l (Y08624) is a new TRIM24/BRPF1 dual inhibitor, with IC₅₀ values of 0.98 and 1.16 μM, respectively. Cellular activity of 20l was validated by viability assay in prostate cancer (PC) cell lines. In PC xenograft models, 20l suppressed tumor growth (50 mg/kg/day, TGI = 53%) without exhibiting noticeable toxicity. Compound 20l represents a versatile starting point for the development of more potent TRIM24/BRPF1 inhibitors.

Insights into the Molecular Mechanisms of Histone Code Recognition by the BRPF3 Bromodomain

Bromodomains are evolutionarily conserved reader modules that recognize acetylated lysine residues on the histone tails to facilitate gene transcription. The bromodomain and PHD finger containing protein 3 (BRPF3) is a scaffolding protein that forms a tetrameric complex with HBO1 histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and two other subunits, which is known to regulate the HAT activity and substrate specificity. However, its molecular mechanism, histone ligands, and biological functions remain unknown. Herein, we identify mono- (H4K5ac) and di- (H4K5acK12ac) acetylated histone peptides as novel interacting partners of the BRPF3 bromodomain. Consistent with this, pull-down assays on purified histones from human cells confirm the interaction of BRPF3 bromodomain with acetylated histone H4. Further, MD simulation studies highlight the binding mode of acetyllysine (Kac) and the stability of bromodomain-histone peptide complexes. Collectively, our findings provide a key insight into how histone targets of the BRPF3 bromodomain direct the recruitment of HBO1 complex to chromatin for downstream transcriptional regulation.

The role of MOZ/KAT6A in hematological malignancies and advances in MOZ/KAT6A inhibitors

Hematological malignancies, unlike solid tumors, are a group of malignancies caused by abnormal differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells. Monocytic leukemia zinc finger protein (MOZ), a member of the MYST (MOZ, Ybf2/Sas3, Sas2, Tip60) family, is a histone acetyltransferase. MOZ is involved in various cellular functions: generation and maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells, development of erythroid cells, B-lineage progenitors and myeloid cells, and regulation of cellular senescence. Studies have shown that MOZ is susceptible to translocation in chromosomal rearrangements to form fusion genes, leading to the fusion of MOZ with other cellular regulators to form MOZ fusion proteins. Different MOZ fusion proteins have different roles, such as in the development and progression of hematological malignancies and inhibition of cellular senescence. Thus, MOZ is an attractive target, and targeting MOZ to design small-molecule drugs can help to treat hematological malignancies. This review summarizes recent progress in biology and medicinal chemistry for the histone acetyltransferase MOZ. In the biology section, MOZ and cofactors, structures of MOZ and related HATs, MOZ and fusion proteins, and roles of MOZ in cancer are discussed. In medicinal chemistry, recent developments in MOZ inhibitors are summarized.

Engineering an acetyllysine reader with a photocrosslinking amino acid for interactome profiling

The site-specific installation of light-activable crosslinker unnatural amino acids offers a powerful approach to trap transient protein-protein interactions both in vitro and in vivo. Herein, we engineer a bromodomain to introduce 4-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine (BzF) using amber suppressor mutagenesis without compromising its ability to recognize the acetylated histone proteins. We demonstrate the high crosslinking efficiency of the engineered reader towards the interacting partners and its suitability for profiling the transient bromodomain interactome.

Functional Roles of Bromodomain Proteins in Cancer

Histone acetylation is generally associated with an open chromatin configuration that facilitates many cellular processes including gene transcription, DNA repair, and DNA replication. Aberrant levels of histone lysine acetylation are associated with the development of cancer. Bromodomains represent a family of structurally well-characterized effector domains that recognize acetylated lysines in chromatin. As part of their fundamental reader activity, bromodomain-containing proteins play versatile roles in epigenetic regulation, and additional functional modules are often present in the same protein, or through the assembly of larger enzymatic complexes. Dysregulated gene expression, chromosomal translocations, and/or mutations in bromodomain-containing proteins have been correlated with poor patient outcomes in cancer. Thus, bromodomains have emerged as a highly tractable class of epigenetic targets due to their well-defined structural domains, and the increasing ease of designing or screening for molecules that modulate the reading process. Recent developments in pharmacological agents that target specific bromodomains has helped to understand the diverse mechanisms that bromodomains play with their interaction partners in a variety of chromatin processes, and provide the promise of applying bromodomain inhibitors into the clinical field of cancer treatment. In this review, we explore the expression and protein interactome profiles of bromodomain-containing proteins and discuss them in terms of functional groups. Furthermore, we highlight our current understanding of the roles of bromodomain-containing proteins in cancer, as well as emerging strategies to specifically target bromodomains, including combination therapies using bromodomain inhibitors alongside traditional therapeutic approaches designed to re-program tumorigenesis and metastasis.

The BRPF1 bromodomain is a molecular reader of di-acetyllysine

Bromodomain-containing proteins are often part of chromatin-modifying complexes, and their activity can lead to altered expression of genes that drive cancer, inflammation and neurological disorders in humans. Bromodomain-PHD finger protein 1 (BRPF1) is part of the MOZ (monocytic leukemic zinc-finger protein) HAT (histone acetyltransferase) complex, which is associated with chromosomal translocations known to contribute to the development of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). BRPF1 contains a unique combination of chromatin reader domains including two plant homeodomain (PHD) fingers separated by a zinc knuckle (PZP domain), a bromodomain, and a proline-tryptophan-tryptophan-proline (PWWP) domain. BRPF1 is known to recruit the MOZ HAT complex to chromatin by recognizing acetylated lysine residues on the N-terminal histone tail region through its bromodomain. However, histone proteins can contain several acetylation modifications on their N-terminus, and it is unknown how additional marks influence bromodomain recruitment to chromatin. Here, we identify the BRPF1 bromodomain as a selective reader of di-acetyllysine modifications on histone H4. We used ITC assays to characterize the binding of di-acetylated histone ligands to the BRPF1 bromodomain and found that the domain binds preferentially to histone peptides H4K5acK8ac and H4K5acK12ac. Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) experiments revealed that the monomeric state of the BRPF1 bromodomain coordinates di-acetylated histone ligands. NMR chemical shift perturbation studies, along with binding and mutational analyses, revealed non-canonical regions of the bromodomain-binding pocket that are important for histone tail recognition. Together, our findings provide critical information on how the combinatorial action of post-translational modifications can modulate BRPF1 bromodomain binding and specificity.

Advancements in the Development of non-BET Bromodomain Chemical Probes

The bromodomain and extra terminal (BET) family of bromodomain-containing proteins (BCPs) have been the subject of extensive research over the past decade, resulting in a plethora of high-quality chemical probes for their tandem bromodomains. In turn, these chemical probes have helped reveal the profound biological role of the BET bromodomains and their role in disease, ultimately leading to a number of molecules in active clinical development. However, the BET subfamily represents just 8/61 of the known human bromodomains, and attention has now expanded to the biological role of the remaining 53 non-BET bromodomains. Rapid growth of this research area has been accompanied by a greater understanding of the requirements for an effective bromodomain chemical probe and has led to a number of new non-BET bromodomain chemical probes being developed. Advances since December 2015 are discussed, highlighting the strengths/caveats of each molecule, and the value they add toward validating the non-BET bromodomains as tractable therapeutic targets.

MOZ Forms an Autoregulatory Feedback Loop with miR-223 in AML and Monocyte/Macrophage Development

Monocytic leukemia zinc-finger protein (MOZ) has been found to form fusion proteins with many regulators in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). However, the molecular functions and underlying mechanism of MOZ in AML is not well understood. Here, clinical MOZ expression analysis combined with data integration from the TCGA and GEO databases indicated that a low level of MOZ was associated with poor prognosis. MOZ knockdown inhibited monocyte differentiation and increased resistance to chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis in THP-1 or U937 cells. In addition, we found that genetic silencing of MOZ suppressed AP-1 and AKT activity in the context of lipopolysaccharide stimulation, resulting in diminished M1 activation of macrophages. We further showed that MOZ was a validated target of miR-223 and functioned as a repressor of miR-223 expression. Our study indicates that a molecular network involving MOZ and miR-223 contributes to the monocyte differentiation and polarization program, which is deregulated in AML.

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Low MOZ is associated with poor prognosis in patients with AML

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Silencing of MOZ makes AML cells exhibit “stem-like” characters

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MOZ promotes monocyte-to-macrophage development and M1 polarization

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MOZ is a direct target of miR-223 and functions as a repressor of miR-223

The histone acetyltransferase Mst2 sustains the biological control potential of a fungal insect pathogen through transcriptional regulation

Histone lysine acetylation orchestrates transcriptional activity essential for diverse cellular events across organisms, but it remains poorly understood how an acetylated lysine affects cellular functions in filamentous fungal pathogens. Here, we show the functions of a histone acetyltransferase that is phylogenetically close to Mst2 in fission yeast and specifically acetylates histone H3K14 in Beauveria bassiana, a fungal insect pathogen widely applied in arthropod pest management. Deletion of mst2 in B. bassiana resulted in moderate growth defects on rich and minimal media, delayed conidiation, and drastic reduction (75%) in conidiation capacity under normal culture conditions. The Δmst2 conidia suffered slower germination, decreased hydrophobicity, attenuated virulence, and reduced thermotolerance and UV-B resistance. The Δmst2 mutant also displayed increased sensitivities to DNA damaging, oxidative, cell wall perturbing, and osmotic stresses during conidial germination and colony growth at optimal 25 °C. Intriguingly, the phenotypic changes were accompanied with transcriptional repression of related gene sets, which are required for asexual development and conidial hydrophobicity or cascaded for CWI and HOG pathways, and encode the families of superoxide dismutases (SOD), catalases, heat-shock proteins, and trehalose or mannitol-metabolizing enzymes. Consequently, total SOD and catalase activities, trehalose and mannitol contents, and hydrophobicity were remarkably lowered in the hyphal cells or conidia of Δmst2. All of these changes were well restored by targeted mst2 complementation. Our results indicate that Mst2 enables to mediate global gene transcription and/or post-translation through H3K14 acetylation and plays an essential role in sustaining the biological control potential of B. bassiana against arthropod pests.

Biological function and histone recognition of family IV bromodomain-containing proteins

Bromodomain proteins function as epigenetic readers that recognize acetylated histone tails to facilitate the transcription of target genes. There are approximately 60 known human bromodomains, which are divided into eight sub-families based on structural conservation. The bromodomain-containing proteins in family IV include seven members (BRPF1, BRPF2, BRPF3, BRD7, BRD9, ATAD2, and ATAD2b). The bromodomains of each of these proteins recognize and bind acetyllysine residues on histone tails protruding from the nucleosome. However, the histone marks recognized by each bromodomain protein can be very different. The BRPF1 subunit of the MOZ histone acetyltransferase (HAT) recognizes acetylated histones H2AK5ac, H4K12ac, H3K14ac, H4K8ac, and H4K5ac. While the bromodomain of BRD7, a member of the SWI/SNF complex, was shown to preferentially recognize acetylated histones H3K9ac, H3K14ac, H4K8ac, H4K12ac, and H4K16ac. The bromodomains of BRPF2 and BRPF3 have similar sequences, and function as part of the HBO1 HAT complex, but there is limited data on which histone ligands they bind. Similarly, there is little known about the histone targets of the BRD9 and ATAD2b bromodomain proteins. Interestingly, the ATAD2 bromodomain was recently shown to preferentially bind to the di-acetylated H4K5acK12ac mark found in newly synthesized histones following DNA replication. However, despite the physiological importance of the family IV bromodomains, little is known about how they function at the molecular or atomic level. In this review, we summarize our understanding of how family IV bromodomains recognize and select for acetyllysine marks and discuss the importance of acetylated histone recognition for their biological functions.

Copy number variants in a population-based investigation of Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome

Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome (KTS) is a rare congenital vascular disorder that is thought to occur sporadically; however, reports of familial occurrence suggest a genetic component. We examined KTS cases to identify novel, potentially causal copy number variants (CNVs). We identified 17 KTS cases from all live-births occurring in New York (1998-2010). Extracted DNA was genotyped using Illumina microarrays and CNVs were called using PennCNV software. CNVs selected for follow-up had ≥10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and minimal overlap with in-house controls or controls from the Database of Genomic Variants. We identified 15 candidate CNVs in seven cases; among them a deletion in two cases within transcripts of HDAC9, a histone deacetylase essential for angiogenic sprouting of endothelial cells. One of them also had a duplication upstream of SALL3, a transcription factor essential for embryonic development that inhibits DNMT3A, a DNA methyltransferase responsible for embryonic de novo DNA methylation. Another case had a duplication spanning ING5, a histone acetylation regulator active during embryogenesis. We identified rare genetic variants related to chromatin modification which may have a key role in regulating vascular development during embryogenesis. Further investigation of their implications in the pathogenesis of KTS is warranted. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Identification of MYST3 as a novel epigenetic activator of ERα frequently amplified in breast cancer

Estrogen receptor α (ERα) is a master driver of a vast majority of breast cancers. Breast cancer cells often develop resistance to endocrine therapy via restoration of the ERα activity through survival pathways. Thus identifying the epigenetic activator of ERα that can be targeted to block ERα gene expression is a critical topic of endocrine therapy. Here, integrative genomic analysis identified MYST3 as a potential oncogene target that is frequently amplified in breast cancer. MYST3 is involved in histone acetylation via its histone acetyltransferase domain (HAT) and, as a result, activates gene expression by altering chromatin structure. We found that MYST3 was amplified in 11% and/or overexpressed in 15% of breast tumors, and overexpression of MYST3 correlated with worse clinical outcome in estrogen receptor+ (ER+) breast cancers. Interestingly, MYST3 depletion drastically inhibited proliferation in MYST3-high, ER+ breast cancer cells, but not in benign breast epithelial cells or in MYST3-low breast cancer cells. Importantly, we discovered that knocking down MYST3 resulted in profound reduction of ERα expression, while ectopic expression of MYST3 had the reversed effect. Chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed that MYST3 binds to the proximal promoter region of ERα gene, and inactivating mutations in its HAT domain abolished its ability to regulate ERα, suggesting MYST3 functioning as a histone acetyltransferase that activates ERα promoter. Furthermore, MYST3 inhibition with inducible MYST3 shRNAs potently attenuated breast tumor growth in mice. Together, this study identifies the first histone acetyltransferase that activates ERα expression which may be potentially targeted to block ERα at transcriptional level.

Selective recognition of histone crotonylation by double PHD fingers of MOZ and DPF2

Recognition of histone covalent modifications by 'reader' modules constitutes a major mechanism for epigenetic regulation. A recent upsurge of newly discovered histone lysine acylations, such as crotonylation (Kcr), butyrylation (Kbu), and propionylation (Kpr), greatly expands the coding potential of histone lysine modifications. Here we demonstrate that the histone acetylation-binding double PHD finger (DPF) domains of human MOZ (also known as KAT6A) and DPF2 (also known as BAF45d) accommodate a wide range of histone lysine acylations with the strongest preference for Kcr. Crystal structures of the DPF domain of MOZ in complex with H3K14cr, H3K14bu, and H3K14pr peptides reveal that these non-acetyl acylations are anchored in a hydrophobic 'dead-end' pocket with selectivity for crotonylation arising from intimate encapsulation and an amide-sensing hydrogen bonding network. Immunofluorescence and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-quantitative PCR (qPCR) showed that MOZ and H3K14cr colocalize in a DPF-dependent manner. Our studies call attention to a new regulatory mechanism centered on histone crotonylation readout by DPF family members.

Structural features and inhibitors of bromodomains

Bromodomains are conserved structural modules responsible for recognizing acetylated-lysine residues on histone tails and other transcription-associated proteins, such as transcription factors and co-factors. Owing to their important functions in the regulation of ordered gene transcription in chromatin, bromodomains of the BET family proteins have recently been shown as druggable targets for a wide array of human diseases, including cancer and inflammation. Here we review the structural and functional features of the bromodomains and their small-molecule inhibitors. Additional new insights provided herein highlight the landscape of the ligand binding sites in the bromodomains that will hopefully facilitate further development of new inhibitors with optimal affinity and selectivity.

Chemical probes and inhibitors of bromodomains outside the BET family

Significant progress has been made in discovering inhibitors and chemical probes of bromodomains, epigenetic readers of lysine acetylation.

In the last five years, the development of inhibitors of bromodomains has emerged as an area of intensive worldwide research. Emerging evidence has implicated a number of non-BET bromodomains in the onset and progression of diseases such as cancer, HIV infection and inflammation. The development and use of small molecule chemical probes has been fundamental to pre-clinical evaluation of bromodomains as targets. Recent efforts are described highlighting the development of potent, selective and cell active non-BET bromodomain inhibitors and their therapeutic potential. Over half of typical bromodomains now have reported ligands, but those with atypical binding site residues remain resistant to chemical probe discovery efforts.

GSK6853, a Chemical Probe for Inhibition of the BRPF1 Bromodomain

The BRPF (Bromodomain and PHD Finger-containing) protein family are important scaffolding proteins for assembly of MYST histone acetyltransferase complexes. A selective benzimidazolone BRPF1 inhibitor showing micromolar activity in a cellular target engagement assay was recently described. Herein, we report the optimization of this series leading to the identification of a superior BRPF1 inhibitor suitable for in vivo studies.

Mechanism of Histone H3K4me3 Recognition by the Plant Homeodomain of Inhibitor of Growth 3

Aberrant access to genetic information disrupts cellular homeostasis and can lead to cancer development. One molecular mechanism that regulates access to genetic information includes recognition of histone modifications, which is carried out by protein modules that interact with chromatin and serve as landing pads for enzymatic activities that regulate gene expression. The ING3 tumor suppressor protein contains a plant homeodomain (PHD) that reads the epigenetic code via recognition of histone H3 tri-methylated at lysine 4 (H3K4me3), and this domain is lost or mutated in various human cancers. However, the molecular mechanisms targeting ING3 to histones and the role of this interaction in the cell remain elusive. Thus, we employed biochemical and structural biology approaches to investigate the interaction of the ING3 PHD finger (ING3PHD) with the active transcription mark H3K4me3. Our results demonstrate that association of the ING3PHD with H3K4me3 is in the sub-micromolar range (KD ranging between 0.63 and 0.93 μm) and is about 200-fold stronger than with the unmodified histone H3. NMR and computational studies revealed an aromatic cage composed of Tyr-362, Ser-369, and Trp-385 that accommodate the tri-methylated side chain of H3K4. Mutational analysis confirmed the critical importance of Tyr-362 and Trp-385 in mediating the ING3PHD-H3K4me3 interaction. Finally, the biological relevance of ING3PHD-H3K4me3 binding was demonstrated by the failure of ING3PHD mutant proteins to enhance ING3-mediated DNA damage-dependent cell death. Together, our results reveal the molecular mechanism of H3K4me3 selection by the ING3PHD and suggest that this interaction is important for mediating ING3 tumor suppressive activities.

The BRPF2/BRD1-MOZ complex is involved in retinoic acid-induced differentiation of embryonic stem cells

The scaffold protein BRPF2 (also called BRD1), a key component of histone acetyltransferase complexes, plays an important role in embryonic development, but its function in the differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) remains unknown. In the present study, we investigated whether BRPF2 is involved in mouse ESC differentiation. BRPF2 depletion resulted in abnormal formation of embryoid bodies, downregulation of differentiation-associated genes, and persistent maintenance of alkaline phosphatase activity even after retinoic acid-induced differentiation, indicating impaired differentiation of BRPF2-depleted ESCs. We also found reduced global acetylation of histone H3 lysine 14 (H3K14) in BRPF2-depleted ESCs, irrespective of differentiation status. Further, co-immunoprecipitation analysis revealed a physical association between BRPF2 and the histone acetyltransferase MOZ in differentiated ESCs, suggesting the role of BRPF2-MOZ complexes in ESC differentiation. Together, these results suggest that BRPF2-MOZ complexes play an important role in the differentiation of ESCs via H3K14 acetylation.

Development of small molecule inhibitors of BRPF1 and TRIM24 bromodomains

The entry of small molecule inhibitors of the bromodomain and extra C-terminal domain (BET) family of bromodomains into the clinic has demonstrated the therapeutic potential for this class of epigenetic acetyl-lysine reader proteins. Within the past two years, the development of potent inhibitors for the bromodomain and PHD finger containing protein (BRPF) family and the tripartite motif containing protein 24 (TRIM24) have been reported and are the subject of this review. Both proteins contain other domains with diverse functions and can also be part of a complex of proteins which have implications in epigenetic signaling and disease. These new small molecule tools will be useful for unraveling the biological contribution of the bromodomain and enable pharmacological validation of these proteins.

Widespread colocalization of the Drosophila histone acetyltransferase homolog MYST5 with DREF and insulator proteins at active genes

MYST family histone acetyltransferases play important roles in gene regulation. Here, we have characterized the Drosophila MYST histone acetyltransferase (HAT) encoded by cg1894, whose closest homolog is Drosophila MOF, and which we have termed MYST5. We found it localized to a large number of interbands as well as to the telomeres of polytene chromosomes, and it showed strong colocalization with the interband protein Z4/Putzig and RNA polymerase II. Accordingly, genome-wide location analysis by ChIP-seq showed co-occurrence of MYST5 with the Z4-interacting partner Chriz/Chromator. Interestingly, MYST5 bound to the promoter of actively transcribed genes, and about half of MYST5 sites colocalized with the transcription factor DNA replication-related element-binding factor (DREF), indicating a role for MYST5 in gene expression. Moreover, we observed substantial overlap of MYST5 binding with that of the insulator proteins CP190, dCTCF, and BEAF-32, which mediate the organization of the genome into functionally distinct topological domains. Altogether, our data suggest a broad role for MYST5 both in gene-specific transcriptional regulation and in the organization of the genome into chromatin domains, with the two roles possibly being functionally interconnected.

Disrupting Acetyl-Lysine Recognition: Progress in the Development of Bromodomain Inhibitors

Bromodomains, small protein modules that recognize acetylated lysine on histones, play a significant role in the epigenome, where they function as "readers" that ultimately determine the functional outcome of the post-translational modification. Because the initial discovery of selective BET inhibitors have helped define the role of that protein family in oncology and inflammation, BET bromodomains have continued to garner the most attention of any other bromodomain. More recently, non-BET bromodomain inhibitors that are potent and selective have been disclosed for ATAD2, CBP, BRD7/9, BRPF, BRPF/TRIM24, CECR2, SMARCA4, and BAZ2A/B. Such novel inhibitors can be used to probe the physiological function of these non-BET bromodomains and further understanding of their role in certain disease states. Here, we provide an update to the progress in identifying selective bromodomain inhibitors and their use as biological tools, as well as our perspective on the field.

Structure-Guided Design of IACS-9571, a Selective High-Affinity Dual TRIM24-BRPF1 Bromodomain Inhibitor

The bromodomain containing proteins TRIM24 (tripartite motif containing protein 24) and BRPF1 (bromodomain and PHD finger containing protein 1) are involved in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression and have been implicated in human cancer. Overexpression of TRIM24 correlates with poor patient prognosis, and BRPF1 is a scaffolding protein required for the assembly of histone acetyltransferase complexes, where the gene of MOZ (monocytic leukemia zinc finger protein) was first identified as a recurrent fusion partner in leukemia patients (8p11 chromosomal rearrangements). Here, we present the structure guided development of a series of N,N-dimethylbenzimidazolone bromodomain inhibitors through the iterative use of X-ray cocrystal structures. A unique binding mode enabled the design of a potent and selective inhibitor 8i (IACS-9571) with low nanomolar affinities for TRIM24 and BRPF1 (ITC Kd = 31 nM and ITC Kd = 14 nM, respectively). With its excellent cellular potency (EC50 = 50 nM) and favorable pharmacokinetic properties (F = 29%), 8i is a high-quality chemical probe for the evaluation of TRIM24 and/or BRPF1 bromodomain function in vitro and in vivo.

Fragments in bromodomain drug discovery

A review of fragment-based approaches to finding and optimising bromodomain inhibitors. Early successes against the BET subfamily are now being extended to other members of the target class.

1,3-Dimethyl Benzimidazolones Are Potent, Selective Inhibitors of the BRPF1 Bromodomain

The BRPF (bromodomain and PHD finger-containing) protein family are important scaffolding proteins for assembly of MYST histone acetyltransferase complexes. Here, we report the discovery, binding mode, and structure-activity relationship (SAR) of the first potent, selective series of inhibitors of the BRPF1 bromodomain.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the BRPF1 bromodomain in complex with its H2AK5ac and H4K12ac histone-peptide ligands

The bromodomain-PHD finger protein 1 (BRPF1) is an essential subunit of the monocytic leukemia zinc (MOZ) histone acetyltransferase (HAT) complex and is required for complex formation and enzymatic activation. BRPF1 contains a structurally conserved bromodomain, which recognizes specific acetyllysine residues on histone proteins. The MOZ HAT plays a direct role in hematopoiesis, and deregulation of its activity is linked to the development of acute myeloid leukemia. However, the molecular mechanism of histone-ligand recognition by the BRPF1 bromodomain is currently unknown. The 117-amino-acid BRPF1 bromodomain was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. Crystallization experiments of the BRPF1 bromodomain in complex with its H4K12ac and H2AK5ac histone ligands yielded crystals that were suitable for high-resolution X-ray diffraction analysis. The BRPF1 bromodomain-H4K12ac crystals belonged to the tetragonal space group P43212, with unit-cell parameters a = 75.1, b = 75.1, c = 86.3 Å, and diffracted to a resolution of 1.94 Å. The BRPF1 bromodomain-H2AK5ac crystals grew in the monoclinic space group P21, with unit-cell parameters a = 60.9, b = 55.6, c = 82.1 Å, β = 93.6°, and diffracted to a resolution of 1.80 Å. Complete data sets were collected from both crystal forms using synchrotron radiation on beamline X29 at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL).

Structural insights into recognition of acetylated histone ligands by the BRPF1 bromodomain

Bromodomain-PHD finger protein 1 (BRPF1) is part of the MOZ HAT complex and contains a unique combination of domains typically found in chromatin-associated factors, which include plant homeodomain (PHD) fingers, a bromodomain and a proline-tryptophan-tryptophan-proline (PWWP) domain. Bromodomains are conserved structural motifs generally known to recognize acetylated histones, and the BRPF1 bromodomain preferentially selects for H2AK5ac, H4K12ac and H3K14ac. We solved the X-ray crystal structures of the BRPF1 bromodomain in complex with the H2AK5ac and H4K12ac histone peptides. Site-directed mutagenesis on residues in the BRPF1 bromodomain-binding pocket was carried out to investigate the contribution of specific amino acids on ligand binding. Our results provide critical insights into the molecular mechanism of ligand binding by the BRPF1 bromodomain, and reveal that ordered water molecules are an essential component driving ligand recognition.