Hydrogen sulfide and mesenchymal stem cells-extracted microvesicles attenuate LPS-induced Alzheimer's disease

Neuroprotective effects of vitamin D in an Alzheimer's disease rat model: Improvement of mitochondrial dysfunction via calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 activation of Sirtuin1 phosphorylation

Mitochondrial dysfunction is an early event in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. To assess the impact of vitamin D3 (Vit.D) on neurogenesis, we investigated its role in mitigating cognitive impairment and mitochondrial dysfunction through calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CAMKK2)-mediated phosphorylation of Sirtuin1 (SIRT1) in an aluminum-chloride-D-galactose (AlCl3-D-gal)-induced AD rat model. Rats were distributed into four groups: control, AlCl3 + D-gal (10 + 60 mg/kg, ip), Vit.D (500 IU/kg, po), and AlCl3 + D-gal+Vit.D. Novel object recognition (NOR), Morris Water Maze, and passive avoidance (PA) tests were used to measure memory abilities. The hippocampal tissue was used to assess vitamin D3 receptor (VDR) and peroxisome-proliferator-activated-receptor-γ-coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), CAMKK2, p-SIRT1, phosphorylated-AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK), dynamin-related-protein-1 (Drp1), and mitofusin-1 (Mnf1) proteins by western blot and Ca2+ levels, endothelial nitic oxide synthase (eNOS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), amyloid beta (Aβ), and phospho tau (p-Tau) via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) in addition to histological and ultrastructural examination of rat's brain tissue. Vit.D-attenuated hippocampal injury reversed the cognitive decline and Aβ aggregation, and elevated p-Tau levels in the AlCl3 + D-gal-induced AD rat model. In AlCl3 + D-gal-exposed rats, Vit.D induced VDR expression, normalized Ca2+ levels, elevated CAMKK2, p-AMPK, p-SIRT1, and PGC-1α expression. Vit.D reduced Drp1, induced Mnf1, increased mitochondrial membrane potential, preserved mitochondrial structure, restored normal mitochondrial function, and retained normal eNOS level and SOD activity in AlCl3 + D-gal rats. In conclusion, our findings proved that Vit.D may ameliorate cognitive deficits in AlCl3 + D-gal-induced AD by restoring normal mitochondrial function and reducing inflammatory and oxidative stress via CAMKK2-AMPK/SIRT1 pathway upregulation.

Current Advances and Future Perspectives on Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Alzheimer's Disease

The incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been increasing in recent years as the world's population ages, which poses a significant challenge to public health. Due to the complexity of pathogenesis of AD, currently there is no effective treatment for it. In recent years, cell and gene therapy has attracted widespread attention in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) represent a novel cell-free therapy with numerous advantages over cell-based therapies owing to their low immunogenicity and high safety profile. We summarize recent progress in the application of EVs for treating AD and the specific mechanisms and outline the underlying mechanisms. We also explore various methods for optimizing the function of MSC-EVs, including gene editing, modifying stem cell culture conditions and peptide modification. In addition, we discuss the therapeutic potentials of MSC-EVs, as well as the obstacles that currently impede their clinical utilization.

Pathogenesis of miR-155 on nonmodifiable and modifiable risk factors in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common age-related neurodegenerative disease in the central nervous system and is the primary cause of dementia. It is clinically characterized by the memory impairment, aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, visuospatial and executive dysfunction, behavioral changes, and so on. Incidence of this disease was bound up with age, genetic factors, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular dysfunction, and other basic diseases, but the exact etiology has not been clarified. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small endogenous non-coding RNAs that were involved in the regulation of post-transcriptional gene expression. miRNAs have been extensively studied as noninvasive potential biomarkers for disease due to their relative stability in bodily fluids. In addition, they play a significant role in the physiological and pathological processes of various neurological disorders, including stroke, AD, and Parkinson's disease. MiR-155, as an important pro-inflammatory mediator of neuroinflammation, was reported to participate in the progression of β-amyloid peptide and tau via regulating immunity and inflammation. In this review, we put emphasis on the effects of miR-155 on AD and explore the underlying biological mechanisms which could provide a novel approach for diagnosis and treatment of AD.

The Role of Hydrogen Sulfide in Regulation of Cell Death following Neurotrauma and Related Neurodegenerative and Psychiatric Diseases

Injuries of the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) are a serious problem of the modern healthcare system. The situation is complicated by the lack of clinically effective neuroprotective drugs that can protect damaged neurons and glial cells from death. In addition, people who have undergone neurotrauma often develop mental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases that worsen the quality of life up to severe disability and death. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is a gaseous signaling molecule that performs various cellular functions in normal and pathological conditions. However, the role of H₂S in neurotrauma and mental disorders remains unexplored and sometimes controversial. In this large-scale review study, we examined the various biological effects of H₂S associated with survival and cell death in trauma to the brain, spinal cord, and PNS, and the signaling mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of mental illnesses, such as cognitive impairment, encephalopathy, depression and anxiety disorders, epilepsy and chronic pain. We also studied the role of H₂S in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases: Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). In addition, we reviewed the current state of the art study of H₂S donors as neuroprotectors and the possibility of their therapeutic uses in medicine. Our study showed that H₂S has great neuroprotective potential. H₂S reduces oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and neuroinflammation; inhibits processes associated with apoptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis and pyroptosis; prevents the destruction of the blood-brain barrier; increases the expression of neurotrophic factors; and models the activity of Ca²⁺ channels in neurotrauma. In addition, H₂S activates neuroprotective signaling pathways in psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. However, high levels of H₂S can cause cytotoxic effects. Thus, the development of H₂S-associated neuroprotectors seems to be especially relevant. However, so far, all H₂S modulators are at the stage of preclinical trials. Nevertheless, many of them show a high neuroprotective effect in various animal models of neurotrauma and related disorders. Despite the fact that our review is very extensive and detailed, it is well structured right down to the conclusions, which will allow researchers to quickly find the proper information they are interested in.

Protective Roles of Hydrogen Sulfide in Alzheimer's Disease and Traumatic Brain Injury

The gaseous signaling molecule hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) critically modulates a plethora of physiological processes across evolutionary boundaries. These include responses to stress and other neuromodulatory effects that are typically dysregulated in aging, disease, and injury. H₂S has a particularly prominent role in modulating neuronal health and survival under both normal and pathologic conditions. Although toxic and even fatal at very high concentrations, emerging evidence has also revealed a pronounced neuroprotective role for lower doses of endogenously generated or exogenously administered H₂S. Unlike traditional neurotransmitters, H₂S is a gas and, therefore, is unable to be stored in vesicles for targeted delivery. Instead, it exerts its physiologic effects through the persulfidation/sulfhydration of target proteins on reactive cysteine residues. Here, we review the latest discoveries on the neuroprotective roles of H₂S in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and traumatic brain injury, which is one the greatest risk factors for AD.

New Insights into Alzheimer’s Disease: Novel Pathogenesis, Drug Target and Delivery

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common type of dementia, is characterized by senile plaques composed of amyloid β protein (Aβ) and neurofilament tangles derived from the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein. However, the developed medicines targeting Aβ and tau have not obtained ideal clinical efficacy, which raises a challenge to the hypothesis that AD is Aβ cascade-induced. A critical problem of AD pathogenesis is which endogenous factor induces Aβ aggregation and tau phosphorylation. Recently, age-associated endogenous formaldehyde has been suggested to be a direct trigger for Aβ- and tau-related pathology. Another key issue is whether or not AD drugs are successfully delivered to the damaged neurons. Both the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and extracellular space (ECS) are the barriers for drug delivery. Unexpectedly, Aβ-related SP deposition in ECS slows down or stops interstitial fluid drainage in AD, which is the direct reason for drug delivery failure. Here, we propose a new pathogenesis and perspectives on the direction of AD drug development and drug delivery: (1) aging-related formaldehyde is a direct trigger for Aβ assembly and tau hyperphosphorylation, and the new target for AD therapy is formaldehyde; (2) nano-packaging and physical therapy may be the promising strategy for increasing BBB permeability and accelerating interstitial fluid drainage.

Roles of the miR-155 in Neuroinflammation and Neurological Disorders: A Potent Biological and Therapeutic Target

Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the development and progression of neurological disorders. MicroRNA-155 (miR-155), a miR is known to play in inflammatory responses, is associated with susceptibility to inflammatory neurological disorders and neurodegeneration, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis as well as epilepsy, stroke, and brain malignancies. MiR-155 damages the central nervous system (CNS) by enhancing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IRF3. It also disturbs the blood-brain barrier by decreasing junctional complex molecules such as claudin-1, annexin-2, syntenin-1, and dedicator of cytokinesis 1 (DOCK-1), a hallmark of many neurological disorders. This review discusses the molecular pathways which involve miR-155 as a critical component in the progression of neurological disorders, representing miR-155 as a viable therapeutic target.

Hydrogen Sulfide Inhibited Sympathetic Activation in D-Galactose-Induced Aging Rats by Upregulating Klotho and Inhibiting Inflammation in the Paraventricular Nucleus

The present study aimed to explore the central relationship between cardiovascular conditions and aging. D-galactose (D-gal) was utilized to induce an accelerated aging model and to evaluate the effects of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) on aging-related cardiovascular risk factors and mechanisms. Eight-week-old Sprague Dawley rats were given an intraperitoneal injection of 250 mg/kg D-gal every day with or without H₂S (56 μmol/kg) for 12 weeks. We found that D-gal treatment induced a noticeably aging-related increase in p16, p53 and p21 protein levels and senescence-associated beta-galactosidase staining. In addition, the level of noradrenalin was increased, accompanied by enhanced blood pressure and renal sympathetic nerve activity in aged rats. The greater sympathetic responses were related with the increased level of inflammation. The decreased level of klotho in the paraventricular nucleus neuron also contributed to sympathetic activation in D-gal-induced aged rats. However, the exogenous administration of H₂S attenuated the sympathetic activity in aged rats, as evidenced by the decreased blood pressure, renal sympathetic nerve activity and noradrenalin level. The ameliorated cellular senescence, inflammation and heightened klotho in the paraventricular nucleus were attributed to the protective effects of H₂S. The present study provides further evidence for the drug development of H₂S for the prevention or treatment of the aging-associated cardiovascular diseases.

SHIP1 is required for the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps in rheumatoid arthritis

Aberrant neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the specific pathway leading to NET formation in RA is poorly understood. Therefore, therapies targeting NETs are not available in RA. In this study, we demonstrated Src homology 2 domain-containing inositol phosphatase-1 (SHIP1) function as a hub to regulate NETosis through SHIP1/ p38 MAPK/TNF-α pathway both in vitro and ex vivo and inhibiting SHIP1 expression ameliorated RA symptoms in vivo. Neutrophils from RA patients showed enhanced NETosis as well as increased SHIP1, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family expression and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) expression. Inhibiting SHIP1 in neutrophils using small molecules counteracted the above-mentioned dysregulations and resulted in decrease in NETosis, p38 expression and TNF-α concentration. Consistent with this, SHIP1 agonist led to upregulated p38MAPK and NET formation. Moreover, inhibiting SHIP1 in vivo led to decreased NETosis and showed beneficial therapeutic effects in Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice. Taken together, these results indicated that activation of SHIP1/MAPK/TNF-α pathway was necessary for upregulated NETosis in RA, which provided evidence for targeting SHIP1 in RA treatment.

Multiple Actions of H2S-Releasing Peptides in Human β-Amyloid Expressing C. elegans

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of cognitive function. A major challenge in treating this ailment fully is its multifactorial nature, as it is associated with effects like deposition of Aβ plaques, oxidative distress, inflammation of neuronal cells, and low levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). In the present work, we demonstrate the design, synthesis, and biological activity of peptide conjugates by coupling a H₂S-releasing moiety to the peptides known for their Aβ antiaggregating properties. These conjugates release H₂S in a slow and sustained manner, due to the formation of self-assembled structures and delivered a significant amount of H₂S within Caenorhabditis elegans. These conjugates are shown to target multiple factors responsible for the progression of AD: notably, we observed reduction in oxidative distress, inhibition of Aβ aggregation, and significantly increased ACh levels in the C. elegans model expressing human Aβ.

Methionine restriction - Association with redox homeostasis and implications on aging and diseases

Methionine is an essential amino acid, involved in the promotion of growth, immunity, and regulation of energy metabolism. Over the decades, research has long focused on the beneficial effects of methionine supplementation, while data on positive effects of methionine restriction (MR) were first published in 1993. MR is a low-methionine dietary intervention that has been reported to ameliorate aging and aging-related health concomitants and diseases, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cognitive disorders. In addition, MR seems to be an approach to prolong lifespan which has been validated extensively in various animal models, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila, yeast, and murine models. MR appears to be associated with a reduction in oxidative stress via so far mainly undiscovered mechanisms, and these changes in redox status appear to be one of the underlying mechanisms for lifespan extension and beneficial health effects. In the present review, the association of methionine metabolism pathways with redox homeostasis is described. In addition, the effects of MR on lifespan, age-related implications, comorbidities, and diseases are discussed.

Long-lasting effects of lipopolysaccharide on the reproduction and splenic transcriptome of hens and their offspring

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is ubiquitous in the environment and is released after the death of gram-negative bacteria, which may be related to inflammation and immunosuppression. However, its impact on the reproduction of animals and their offspring, especially the underlying mechanism need further elucidation. Here, we used laying hens as a model organism to investigate the effects of maternal exposure to LPS (LPS maternal stimulation) on animal and their offspring's immunity and reproductive performance, as well as the regulatory role of the transcriptome. We found that the LPS maternal stimulation could reduce the egg-laying rate of hens and their offspring, especially during the early and late laying stages. The transcriptome study of the spleen in F0, F1 and F2 generations showed that the maternal stimulation of the LPS affects the patterns of gene expression in laying hens, and this change has a long-lasting effect. Further analysis of DEGs and their enrichment pathways found that the LPS maternal stimulation mainly affects the reproduction and immunity of laying hens and their offspring. The DEGs such as AVD, HPS5, CATHL2, S100A12, EXFABP, RSFR, LY86, PKD4, XCL1, FOS, TREM2 and MST1 may play an essential role in the regulation of the immunity and egg-laying rate of hens. Furthermore, the MMR1L3, C3, F13A1, LY86 and GDPD2 genes with heritable effects are highly correlated with the egg-laying rate, may have an important reference value for further research. Our study reveals the profound implications of LPS exposure on immunity and reproduction of offspring, elaborating the impact of immune alteration on the egg-laying rate, emphasizing the regulatory role of intergenerational transmission of the transcriptome, implying that the environment parents being exposed to has an important impact on offspring.

Protein S-sulfhydration: Unraveling the prospective of hydrogen sulfide in the brain, vasculature and neurological manifestations

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and hydrogen polysulfides (H₂S_n) are essential regulatory signaling molecules generated by the entire body, including the central nervous system. Researchers have focused on the classical H₂S signaling from the past several decades, whereas the last decade has shown the emergence of H₂S-induced protein S-sulfhydration signaling as a potential therapeutic approach. Cysteine S-persulfidation is a critical paradigm of post-translational modification in the process of H₂S signaling. Additionally, studies have shown the cross-relationship between S-sulfhydration and other cysteine-induced post-translational modifications, namely nitrosylation and carbonylation. In the central nervous system, S-sulfhydration is involved in the cytoprotection through various signaling pathways, viz. inflammatory response, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and angiogenesis. Further, studies have demonstrated H₂S-induced S-sulfhydration in regulating different biological processes, such as mitochondrial integrity, calcium homeostasis, blood-brain permeability, cerebral blood flow, and long-term potentiation. Thus, protein S-sulfhydration becomes a crucial regulatory molecule in cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, we first described the generation of intracellular H₂S followed by the application of H₂S in the regulation of cerebral blood flow and blood-brain permeability. Further, we described the involvement of S-sulfhydration in different biological and cellular functions, such as inflammatory response, mitochondrial integrity, calcium imbalance, and oxidative stress. Moreover, we highlighted the importance of S-sulfhydration in cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases.

MiR-155: An Important Regulator of Neuroinflammation

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and that play an important role in many cellular processes, including modulation of inflammation. MiRNAs are present in high concentrations in the central nervous system (CNS) and are spatially and temporally expressed in a specific way. Therefore, an imbalance in the expression pattern of these small molecules can be involved in the development of neurological diseases. Generally, CNS responds to damage or disease through the activation of an inflammatory response, but many neurological disorders are characterized by uncontrolled neuroinflammation. Many studies support the involvement of miRNAs in the activation or inhibition of inflammatory signaling and in the promotion of uncontrolled neuroinflammation with pathological consequences. MiR-155 is a pro-inflammatory mediator of the CNS and plays an important regulatory role. The purpose of this review is to summarize how miR-155 is regulated and the pathological consequences of its deregulation during neuroinflammatory disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and other neuroinflammatory disorders. Modulation of miRNAs' expression could be used as a therapeutic strategy in the treatment of pathological neuroinflammation.

JK-2 loaded electrospun membrane for promoting bone regeneration

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has been as an essential gasotransmitter and a potential therapeutic approach for several biomedical treatments such as cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, and other diseases. The endogenous and exogenous H₂S also plays a crucial role in the bone anabolic process and a protective mechanism in cell signalling. In this study, we have utilized two types of polymers, polycaprolactone (PCL) and gelatin (Gel), for the fabrication of JK-2 (H₂S donor) loaded nanofibrous scaffold via electrospinning process for bone healing and bone tissue engineering. Comparing the PCL/Gel and PCL/Gel-JK-2 scaffolds, the latter demonstrated enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation capabilities. Furthermore, both experimental scaffolds have been subjected to an in vivo experiment for 4 and 8 weeks in a bone-defect model of a rabbit to determine their biological responses under physiological conditions. There was an obvious increase in bone regeneration in the PCL/Gel-JK-2 group compared to the control and PCL/Gel groups. These results indicate the use of PCL/Gel scaffolds loaded with JK-2 should be considered for possible bone regeneration.

Possible role of rice bran extract in microglial modulation through PPAR-gamma receptors in alzheimer's disease mice model

Alzheimer's Disease (AD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder among elderly people, is ordinarily associated with progressive cognitive decline. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-gamma (PPAR-γ) agonists can be targeted as a beneficial therapeutic strategy against AD. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the preventive and therapeutic effects of rice bran extract (RBE) as a possible PPAR-γ agonist on the microglial phenotype modulation in AD in mice compared to the effects of pioglitazone. This study included 64 adult male Swiss Albino mice divided into 8 groups, each group comprised 8 mice; control group, RBE group, lipopolysaccharide-induced neurodegeneration (a) (LPSa) group, (LPSb) group, RBE-preventive group (RBE + LPSa), pioglitazone-preventive group (PG + LPSa), RBE-treated group (RBE + LPSb), and pioglitazone-treated group (PG + LPSb). Cognitive functions were assessed by Y-maze and Morris water maze tests. The expression of PPAR-γ, CD45, arginase1, CD36, and CD163 genes was assessed by real time qPCR and the estimation of NF-kβ protein level was done by Western blot technique. Moreover, the assessment of Aβ42 and P-tau levels was performed by ELISA. Histopathological examination of brain tissues was performed for all the studied groups. Our results showed that RBE and pioglitazone could modulate microglial phenotype from M1 to M2 where they significantly decreased the expression of NF-κβ and the pro-inflammatory microglial marker (CD45) in parallel with increasing the expression of the anti-inflammatory microglial and phagocytic markers (arginase1, CD163, and CD36). In addition, RBE and pioglitazone significantly increased PPAR-γ expression and reduced Aβ42 deposition as well as p-tau protein levels. In conclusion, our study identified the possible role of PPAR-γ agonistic activity of RBE as a preventive and therapeutic agent in the treatment of the neuro-inflammation associated with AD.

The Antiviral Roles of Hydrogen Sulfide by Blocking the Interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and Its Potential Cell Surface Receptors

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is posing a great threat to the global economy and public health security. Together with the acknowledged angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, glucose-regulated protein 78, transferrin receptor, AXL, kidney injury molecule-1, and neuropilin 1 are also identified as potential receptors to mediate SARS-CoV-2 infection. Therefore, how to inhibit or delay the binding of SARS-CoV-2 with the abovementioned receptors is a key step for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. As the third gasotransmitter, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) plays an important role in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. Recently, survivors were reported to have significantly higher H2S levels in COVID-19 patients, and mortality was significantly greater among patients with decreased H2S levels. Considering that the beneficial role of H2S against COVID-19 and COVID-19-induced comorbidities and multiorgan damage has been well-examined and reported in some excellent reviews, this review will discuss the recent findings on the potential receptors of SARS-CoV-2 and how H2S modulates the above receptors, in turn blocking SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells.

Prenatal intake of omega-3 promotes Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, and preserves integrity of the blood-brain barrier in preeclamptic rats

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia is a systemic, multi-organ endotheliopathy, associated with oxidative injury to the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Preeclampsia initiates a cascade of events that include neuroinflammation. Recently, it was documented that Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway exerts neuroprotective effects and maintain BBB integrity. We investigate the protective effect of omega-3 against neurovascular complication of preeclampsia and its relation to Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

METHODOLOGY

After confirmation of day 0 pregnancy (G0), 24 adult pregnant female Wistar rats were divided into four groups control pregnant, pregnant supplemented with omega-3, preeclampsia (PE); female rats received N (ω)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (50 mg/kg/day SC from day 7 to day 16 of pregnancy for induction of preeclampsia) and PE rats supplemented with omega-3. The intake of omega-3 started on day zero (0) of pregnancy until the end of the study (144 mg/kg\day orally).

RESULTS

We found that omega-3 supplementation significantly improved cognitive functions and EEG amplitude, decreased blood pressure, water contents of brain tissues, sFlt-1, oxidative stress, proteinuria, and enhanced Wnt\β-catenin proteins. Histological examination showed improved cerebral microangiopathy, increased expression of claudin-1 and -3, CD31, and VEGF in the cerebral cortical microvasculature and choroid plexus in PE rats treated with omega-3. A positive correlation between protein expression level of Wnt \β-catenin and cognitive functions, and a negative correlation between claudin-5 relative expression, claudin-1 and -3 area % from one side and water content of the brain tissues from the other side were observed.

CONCLUSION

Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway suspected to have an important role to improve BBB integrity. Neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 were observed and can be suggested as protective supplementation for preeclampsia.