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Salem W, Cellini B, Jaworski E, Mongeau JM. Flies adaptively control flight to compensate for added inertia. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231115. [PMID: 37817597 PMCID: PMC10565401 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal locomotion is highly adaptive, displaying a large degree of flexibility, yet how this flexibility arises from the integration of mechanics and neural control remains elusive. For instance, animals require flexible strategies to maintain performance as changes in mass or inertia impact stability. Compensatory strategies to mechanical loading are especially critical for animals that rely on flight for survival. To shed light on the capacity and flexibility of flight neuromechanics to mechanical loading, we pushed the performance of fruit flies (Drosophila) near its limit and implemented a control theoretic framework. Flies with added inertia were placed inside a virtual reality arena which permitted free rotation about the vertical (yaw) axis. Adding inertia increased the fly's response time yet had little influence on overall gaze stabilization performance. Flies maintained stability following the addition of inertia by adaptively modulating both visuomotor gain and damping. By contrast, mathematical modelling predicted a significant decrease in gaze stabilization performance. Adding inertia altered saccades, however, flies compensated for the added inertia by increasing saccade torque. Taken together, in response to added inertia flies increase reaction time but maintain flight performance through adaptive neural control. Overall, adding inertia decreases closed-loop flight robustness. Our work highlights the flexibility and capacity of motor control in flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wael Salem
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Benjamin Cellini
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Eric Jaworski
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Jean-Michel Mongeau
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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Wynne NE, Chandrasegaran K, Fryzlewicz L, Vinauger C. Visual threats reduce blood-feeding and trigger escape responses in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21354. [PMID: 36494463 PMCID: PMC9734121 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25461-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The diurnal mosquitoes Aedes aegypti are vectors of several arboviruses, including dengue, yellow fever, and Zika viruses. To find a host to feed on, they rely on the sophisticated integration of olfactory, visual, thermal, and gustatory cues emitted by the hosts. If detected by their target, this latter may display defensive behaviors that mosquitoes need to be able to detect and escape in order to survive. In humans, a typical response is a swat of the hand, which generates both mechanical and visual perturbations aimed at a mosquito. Here, we used programmable visual displays to generate expanding objects sharing characteristics with the visual component of an approaching hand and quantified the behavioral response of female mosquitoes. Results show that Ae. aegypti is capable of using visual information to decide whether to feed on an artificial host mimic. Stimulations delivered in a LED flight arena further reveal that landed Ae. aegypti females display a stereotypical escape strategy by taking off at an angle that is a function of the direction of stimulus introduction. Altogether, this study demonstrates that mosquitoes landed on a host mimic can use isolated visual cues to detect and avoid a potential threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E. Wynne
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Karthikeyan Chandrasegaran
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Lauren Fryzlewicz
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Clément Vinauger
- grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA ,grid.438526.e0000 0001 0694 4940Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
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Singh B, Yidris N, Basri AA, Pai R, Ahmad KA. Study of Mosquito Aerodynamics for Imitation as a Small Robot and Flight in a Low-Density Environment. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:511. [PMID: 34063196 PMCID: PMC8147425 DOI: 10.3390/mi12050511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In terms of their flight and unusual aerodynamic characteristics, mosquitoes have become a new insect of interest. Despite transmitting the most significant infectious diseases globally, mosquitoes are still among the great flyers. Depending on their size, they typically beat at a high flapping frequency in the range of 600 to 800 Hz. Flapping also lets them conceal their presence, flirt, and help them remain aloft. Their long, slender wings navigate between the most anterior and posterior wing positions through a stroke amplitude about 40 to 45°, way different from their natural counterparts (>120°). Most insects use leading-edge vortex for lift, but mosquitoes have additional aerodynamic characteristics: rotational drag, wake capture reinforcement of the trailing-edge vortex, and added mass effect. A comprehensive look at the use of these three mechanisms needs to be undertaken-the pros and cons of high-frequency, low-stroke angles, operating far beyond the normal kinematic boundary compared to other insects, and the impact on the design improvements of miniature drones and for flight in low-density atmospheres such as Mars. This paper systematically reviews these unique unsteady aerodynamic characteristics of mosquito flight, responding to the potential questions from some of these discoveries as per the existing literature. This paper also reviews state-of-the-art insect-inspired robots that are close in design to mosquitoes. The findings suggest that mosquito-based small robots can be an excellent choice for flight in a low-density environment such as Mars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balbir Singh
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
- Department of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Noorfaizal Yidris
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Adi Azriff Basri
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Raghuvir Pai
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India;
| | - Kamarul Arifin Ahmad
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.Y.); (A.A.B.)
- Aerospace Malaysia Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
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Smith NM, Balsalobre JB, Doshi M, Willenberg BJ, Dickerson AK. Landing mosquitoes bounce when engaging a substrate. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15744. [PMID: 32978447 PMCID: PMC7519040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72462-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In this experimental study we film the landings of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes to characterize landing behaviors and kinetics, limitations, and the passive physiological mechanics they employ to land on a vertical surface. A typical landing involves 1-2 bounces, reducing inbound momentum by more than half before the mosquito firmly attaches to a surface. Mosquitoes initially approach landing surfaces at 0.1-0.6 m/s, decelerating to zero velocity in approximately 5 ms at accelerations as high as 5.5 gravities. Unlike Dipteran relatives, mosquitoes do not visibly prepare for landing with leg adjustments or body pitching. Instead mosquitoes rely on damping by deforming two forelimbs and buckling of the proboscis, which also serves to distribute the impact force, lessening the potential of detection by a mammalian host. The rebound response of a landing mosquito is well-characterized by a passive mass-spring-damper model which permits the calculation of force across impact velocity. The landing force of the average mosquito in our study is approximately 40 [Formula: see text]N corresponding to an impact velocity of 0.24 m/s. The substrate contact velocity which produces a force perceptible to humans, 0.42 m/s, is above 85% of experimentally observed landing speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Smith
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Jasmine B Balsalobre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Mona Doshi
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Bradley J Willenberg
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Andrew K Dickerson
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA.
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van Veen WG, van Leeuwen JL, Muijres FT. Malaria mosquitoes use leg push-off forces to control body pitch during take-off. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2019; 333:38-49. [PMID: 31403265 PMCID: PMC6916183 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Escaping from a blood host with freshly acquired nutrition for her eggs is one of the most critical actions in the life of a female malaria mosquito. During this take-off, she has to carry a large payload, up to three times her body weight, while avoiding tactile detection by the host. What separates the malaria mosquito from most other insects is that the mosquito pushes off gently with its legs while producing aerodynamic forces with its wings. Apart from generating the required forces, the malaria mosquito has to produce the correct torques to pitch-up during take-off. Furthermore, the fed mosquito has to alter the direction of its aerodynamic force vector to compensate for the higher body pitch angle due to its heavier abdomen. Whether the mosquito generates these torques and redirection of the forces with its wings or legs remains unknown. By combining rigid-body inverse dynamics analyses with computational fluid dynamics simulations, we show that mosquitoes use leg push-off to control pitch torques and that the adaption of the aerodynamic force direction is synchronized with modulations in force magnitude. These results suggest that during the push-off phase of a take-off, mosquitoes use their flight apparatus primarily as a motor system and they use leg push-off forces for control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter G van Veen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan L van Leeuwen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Florian T Muijres
- Experimental Zoology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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