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Li X, Xiao Y, Zhu Y, Li P, Zhou J, Yang J, Chen Z, Du H, Yu H, Guo Y, Bian H, Li Z. Regulation of autophagy by ST3GAL2-mediated α2-3 sialylated glycosphingolipids in hepatic encephalopathy. Int J Biol Macromol 2024:135196. [PMID: 39256125 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 08/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/12/2024]
Abstract
In neurological diseases, the regulation of autophagy plays a crucial role in their pathology, particularly the relationship between autophagy and hepatic encephalopathy (HE) which merits detailed investigation. Glycosphingolipids are abundant and broadly functional in the nervous system and are closely associated with autophagy. However, the specific link and mechanisms between glycosphingolipids and autophagy in HE remain unclear. This study aims to explore the impact of glycosphingolipid changes on the autophagy in HE and its potential mechanisms. Utilizing lectin microarrays, we observed elevated expression levels of α2-3 sialylated glycosphingolipid in the brain tissue of HBV transgenic mice and ammonia-induced astrocyte models, suggesting that the increase in α2-3 sialylated glycosphingolipid is related to HE. Further research revealed that the increased expression of α2-3 sialylated glycosphingolipid, mediated by ST3GAL2, affects autophagy by regulating the autophagy initiation complex Vps34-Beclin-1. In summary, our research not only comprehensively reveals the changes in brain glycosphingolipid during HBV-related HE but also elucidates the interactions and regulatory mechanisms between α2-3 sialylated glycosphingolipid and autophagy. This study provides a new perspective on understanding the pathogenesis of HE and offers novel theories and targets for future research and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaocheng Li
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China; Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yaqing Xiao
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yayun Zhu
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Medical Experiment Center, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Jiejun Zhou
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jiajun Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Haoqi Du
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Hanjie Yu
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yonghong Guo
- The Infectious Disease Department, Gongli Hospital, Pudong New Area, Shanghai, China.
| | - Huijie Bian
- Cell Engineering Research Centre and Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.
| | - Zheng Li
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China.
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Nian J, Lan W, Wang Z, Zhang X, Yao H, Zhang F. Exploring the metabolic implications of blue light exposure during daytime in rats. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 278:116436. [PMID: 38723383 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Excessive exposure to light is a global issue. Artificial light pollution has been shown to disrupt the body's natural circadian rhythm. To investigate the impacts of light on metabolism, we studied Sprague-Dawley rats chronically exposed to red or blue light during daytime or nighttime. Rats in the experimental group were exposed to extended light for 4 hours during daytime or nighttime to simulate the effects of excessive light usage. Strikingly, we found systemic metabolic alterations only induced by blue light during daytime. Furthermore, we conducted metabolomic analyses of the cerebrospinal fluid, serum, heart, liver, spleen, adrenal, cerebellum, pituitary, prostate, spermatophore, hypothalamus and kidney from rats in the control and blue light exposure during daytime. Significant changes in metabolites have been observed in cerebrospinal fluid, serum, hypothalamus and kidney of rats exposed to blue light during daytime. Metabolic alterations observed in rats encompassing pyruvate metabolism, glutathione metabolism homocysteine degradation, phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis, and phospholipid biosynthesis, exhibit analogous patterns to those inherent in specific physiological processes, notably neurodevelopment, cellular injury, oxidative stress, and autophagic pathways. Our study provides insights into tissue-specific metabolic changes in rats exposed to blue light during the daytime and may help explain potential mechanisms of photopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Nian
- Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Ministry of Education, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350122, PR China
| | - Wenning Lan
- Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Ministry of Education, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350122, PR China
| | - Ziran Wang
- Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Ministry of Education, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350122, PR China
| | - Xiaojing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Ministry of Education, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350122, PR China
| | - Hong Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tong Jia Xiang, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Fangrong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Cancer, Ministry of Education, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350122, PR China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Tumor Microbiology, Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, PR China.
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3
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Li X, Wang S, Zhang M, Li M. Enhancement of autophagy can alleviate oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis induced by ammonia stress in yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2024; 149:109582. [PMID: 38657880 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2024.109582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Ammonia in aquatic environments is toxic to fish, directly impacting their growth performance and development. Activation of autophagy can facilitate intracellular component renewal and enhance an organism's adaptability to adverse environments. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of autophagy on the yellow catfish under acute ammonia stress. In this study, the yellow catfish intraperitoneally injected with 0.9 % sodium chloride were placed with 0 (CON group) and 125 (HA group) mg/L T-AN (Total ammonia nitrogen) dechlorinated water. The yellow catfish intraperitoneally injected with 30 mg/kg fish CQ (Chloroquine, HA + CQ group) and 1.5 mg/kg fish RAPA (rapamycin, HA + RAPA group) were placed in dechlorinated water containing 125 mg/L T-AN. The results showed that activation of autophagy by injecting with RAPA can alleviate oxidative stress (catalase, superoxide dismutase, total antioxidant capacity significantly increased, H2O2 content significantly decreased), and inflammatory response (pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, MyD88, IL 1-β gene expression decreased significantly), apoptosis (baxa, Bcl2, Tgf-β, Smad2, Caspase3, Caspase 9 gene expression decreased significantly) induced by ammonia stress. In addition, activation of autophagy in yellow catfish can enhance ammonia detoxification by promoting the urea cycle and synthesis of glutamine (the mRNA level of CPS Ⅰ, ARG, OTC, ASS, ASL, and GS increased in the HA + RAPA group). The data above demonstrates that activating autophagy can alleviate oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and cell apoptosis induced by ammonia stress. Therefore, enhancing autophagy is proposed as a potential strategy to mitigate the detrimental impacts of ammonia stress on yellow catfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Shidong Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Muzi Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Ming Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.
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Li X, Xiao Y, Li P, Zhu Y, Guo Y, Bian H, Li Z. Sialyltransferase ST3GAL6 silencing reduces α2,3-sialylated glycans to regulate autophagy by decreasing HSPB8-BAG3 in the brain with hepatic encephalopathy. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2024; 25:485-498. [PMID: 38910494 PMCID: PMC11199091 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b2300917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
End-stage liver diseases, such as cirrhosis and liver cancer caused by hepatitis B, are often combined with hepatic encephalopathy (HE); ammonia poisoning is posited as one of its main pathogenesis mechanisms. Ammonia is closely related to autophagy, but the molecular mechanism of ammonia's regulatory effect on autophagy in HE remains unclear. Sialylation is an essential form of glycosylation. In the nervous system, abnormal sialylation affects various physiological processes, such as neural development and synapse formation. ST3 β-galactoside α2,3-sialyltransferase 6 (ST3GAL6) is one of the significant glycosyltransferases responsible for adding α2,3-linked sialic acid to substrates and generating glycan structures. We found that the expression of ST3GAL6 was upregulated in the brains of mice with HE and in astrocytes after ammonia induction, and the expression levels of α2,3-sialylated glycans and autophagy-related proteins microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin-1 were upregulated in ammonia-induced astrocytes. These findings suggest that ST3GAL6 is related to autophagy in HE. Therefore, we aimed to determine the regulatory relationship between ST3GAL6 and autophagy. We found that silencing ST3GAL6 and blocking or degrading α2,3-sialylated glycans by way of Maackia amurensis lectin-II (MAL-II) and neuraminidase can inhibit autophagy. In addition, silencing the expression of ST3GAL6 can downregulate the expression of heat shock protein β8 (HSPB8) and Bcl2-associated athanogene 3 (BAG3). Notably, the overexpression of HSPB8 partially restored the reduced autophagy levels caused by silencing ST3GAL6 expression. Our results indicate that ST3GAL6 regulates autophagy through the HSPB8-BAG3 complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaocheng Li
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Yaqing Xiao
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Medical Experiment Center, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang 712046, China
| | - Yayun Zhu
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Yonghong Guo
- The Infectious Disease Department, Gongli Hospital, Pudong New Area, Shanghai 200135, China. ,
| | - Huijie Bian
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China. ,
| | - Zheng Li
- Laboratory for Functional Glycomics, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China.
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5
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García-Díaz HC, Eremiev S, Gómez-Alonso J, Veas Rodriguez J, Farriols A, Carreras MJ, Serrano C. Hyperammonemic encephalopathy after tyrosine kinase inhibitors: A literature review and a case example. J Oncol Pharm Pract 2024; 30:576-583. [PMID: 38258317 DOI: 10.1177/10781552231225188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review the evidence of uncommon but fatal adverse event of hyperammonemic encephalopathy by tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) and the possible mechanisms underlying this condition and to describe the case of a patient that developed drug-induced hyperammonemic encephalopathy related to TKI. DATA SOURCES Literature search of different databases was performed for studies published from 1 January 1992 to 7 May 2023. The search terms utilized were hyperammonemic encephalopathy, TKI, apatinib, pazopanib, sunitinib, imatinib, sorafenib, regorafenib, trametinib, urea cycle regulation, sorafenib, carbamoyl-phosphate synthetase 1, ornithine transcarbamylase, argininosuccinate synthetase, argininosuccinate lyase, arginase 1, Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) pathway and mTOR pathway, were used individually search or combined. DATA SUMMARY Thirty-seven articles were included. The articles primarily focused in hyperammonemic encephalopathy case reports, management of hyperammonemic encephalopathy, urea cycle regulation, autophagy, mTOR and MAPK pathways, and TKI. CONCLUSION Eighteen cases of hyperammonemic encephalopathy were reported in the literature from various multitargeted TKI. The mechanism of this event is not well-understood but some authors have hypothesized vascular causes since some of TKI are antiangiogenic, however our literature review shows a possible relationship between the urea cycle and the molecular inhibition exerted by TKI. More preclinical evidence is required to unveil the biochemical mechanisms responsible involved in this process and clinical studies are necessary to shed light on the prevalence, risk factors, management and prevention of this adverse event. It is important to monitor neurological symptoms and to measure ammonia levels when manifestations are detected.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Simeon Eremiev
- Medical Oncology Service, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Javier Gómez-Alonso
- Department of Pharmacy Service, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Anna Farriols
- Department of Pharmacy Service, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria J Carreras
- Department of Pharmacy Service, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
| | - César Serrano
- Medical Oncology Service, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
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6
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Moriwaki T, Terawaki S, Otomo T. Impaired lysosomal acidity maintenance in acid lipase-deficient cells leads to defective autophagy. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:105743. [PMID: 38354786 PMCID: PMC10933554 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.105743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The lysosome is an acid organelle that contains a variety of hydrolytic enzymes and plays a significant role in intracellular degradation to maintain cellular homeostasis. Genetic variants in lysosome-related genes can lead to severe congenital diseases, such as lysosomal storage diseases. In the present study, we investigated the impact of depleting lysosomal acid lipase A (LIPA), a lysosomal esterase that metabolizes esterified cholesterol or triglyceride, on lysosomal function. Under nutrient-rich conditions, LIPA gene KO (LIPAKO) cells exhibited impaired autophagy, whereas, under starved conditions, they showed normal autophagy. The cause underlying the differential autophagic activity was increased sensitivity of LIPAKO cells to ammonia, which was produced from l-glutamine in the medium. Further investigation revealed that ammonia did not affect upstream signals involved in autophagy induction, autophagosome-lysosome fusion, and hydrolytic enzyme activities in LIPAKO cells. On the other hand, LIPAKO cells showed defective lysosomal acidity upon ammonia loading. Microscopic analyses revealed that lysosomes of LIPAKO cells enlarged, whereas the amount of lysosomal proton pump V-ATPase did not proportionally increase. Since the enlargement of lysosomes in LIPAKO cells was not normalized under starved conditions, this is the primary change that occurred in the LIPAKO cells, and autophagy was affected by impaired lysosomal function under the specific conditions. These findings expand our comprehension of the pathogenesis of Wolman's disease, which is caused by a defect in the LIPA gene, and suggest that conditions, such as hyperlipidemia, may easily disrupt lysosomal functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahito Moriwaki
- Department of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan
| | - Seigo Terawaki
- Department of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan
| | - Takanobu Otomo
- Department of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan.
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7
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Li X, Wang S, Zhang M, Li M. The SLC38A9-mTOR axis is involved in autophagy in the juvenile yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) under ammonia stress. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 343:123211. [PMID: 38142034 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
The primary objective of this study was to examine the effect of acute ammonia stress on hepatic physiological alterations in yellow catfish by performing a comprehensive analysis of the metabolome and transcriptome. The present study showed that ammonia stress led to liver metabolic disruption, functional incapacitation, and oxidative damage. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses revealed transcriptional and metabolic differences in the liver of yellow catfish under control and high ammonia stress conditions. After 96 h of acute exposure to ammonia, the mRNA levels of 596 liver genes were upregulated, whereas those of 603 genes were downregulated. Enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed genes identified multiple signalling pathways associated with autophagy, including the endocytosis, autophagy-animal, and mammalian target of rapamycin signalling pathways. A total of 186 upregulated and 117 downregulated metabolites, primarily associated with amino acid biosynthesis pathways, were identified. Multi-omics integration revealed the solute carrier family 38 member 9 (SLC38A9)-mammalian target of rapamycin axis as a signalling nexus for amino acid-mediated modulation of autophagy flux, and q-PCR was used to assess the expression of autophagy-related genes (LC3a and sqstm1), revealing an initial inhibition followed by the restoration of autophagic flux during ammonia stress. Subsequent utilisation of arginine as a specific SLC38A9 activator during ammonia stress demonstrated that augmented SLC38A9 expression hindered autophagy, exacerbated ammonia toxicity, and caused a physiological decline (total cholesterol, total triglyceride, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase levels were significantly increased), oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Autophagy activation may be an adaptive mechanism to resist ammonia stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Shidong Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Muzi Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Ming Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.
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8
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Arra M, Swarnkar G, Adapala NS, Naqvi SK, Cai L, Rai MF, Singamaneni S, Mbalaviele G, Brophy R, Abu-Amer Y. Glutamine metabolism modulates chondrocyte inflammatory response. eLife 2022; 11:e80725. [PMID: 35916374 PMCID: PMC9371604 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease in the world with significant societal consequences but lacks effective disease-modifying interventions. The pathophysiology consists of a prominent inflammatory component that can be targeted to prevent cartilage degradation and structural defects. Intracellular metabolism has emerged as a culprit of the inflammatory response in chondrocytes, with both processes co-regulating each other. The role of glutamine metabolism in chondrocytes, especially in the context of inflammation, lacks a thorough understanding and is the focus of this work. We display that mouse chondrocytes utilize glutamine for energy production and anabolic processes. Furthermore, we show that glutamine deprivation itself causes metabolic reprogramming and decreases the inflammatory response of chondrocytes through inhibition of NF-κB activity. Finally, we display that glutamine deprivation promotes autophagy and that ammonia is an inhibitor of autophagy. Overall, we identify a relationship between glutamine metabolism and inflammatory signaling and display the need for increased study of chondrocyte metabolic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Arra
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Gaurav Swarnkar
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Naga Suresh Adapala
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Syeda Kanwal Naqvi
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Lei Cai
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Muhammad Farooq Rai
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Srikanth Singamaneni
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Material Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Gabriel Mbalaviele
- Bone and Mineral Division, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Robert Brophy
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
| | - Yousef Abu-Amer
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, United States
- Shriners Hospital for Children, Saint Louis, United States
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9
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Fares HM, Lyu X, Xu X, Dong R, Ding M, Mi S, Wang Y, Li X, Yuan S, Sun L. Autophagy in cancer: The cornerstone during glutamine deprivation. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 916:174723. [PMID: 34973953 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, researchers have revealed the crucial functions of glutamine in supporting the hyperproliferation state of cancer cells. Glutamine acts on maintaining high energy production, supporting redox status and amino acid homeostasis. Therefore, cancer cells exhibit excessive uptake of the extracellular glutamine, synthesize it in some cases, and recycle intracellular and extracellular proteins to provide an additional source of glutamine to satisfy the increasing glutamine demand. On the other hand, autophagy's role is still debated regarding tumor initiation and progression. However, most cancer cells urgently need autophagy to overcome the existential threats during glutamine restriction stress. Downstream to various stress pathways induced during such a condition, autophagy is considered an indispensable cytoprotective tool to maintain cell integrity and survival. However, the overactivation of the autophagy process is related to lethal consequences. This review summarized glutamine pathways to control autophagy and highlighted autophagy's primary activation pathways, and discussed the roles during glutamine deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamza M Fares
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaodan Lyu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoting Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Renchao Dong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Muyao Ding
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shichao Mi
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yifan Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xue Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shengtao Yuan
- Jiangsu Center for Pharmacodynamics Research and Evaluation, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Li Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
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10
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Liu J, Zhai C, Rho JR, Lee S, Heo HJ, Kim S, Kim HJ, Hong ST. Treatment of Hyperammonemia by Transplanting a Symbiotic Pair of Intestinal Microbes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:696044. [PMID: 35071025 PMCID: PMC8766988 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.696044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperammonemia is a deleterious and inevitable consequence of liver failure. However, no adequate therapeutic agent is available for hyperammonemia. Although recent studies showed that the pharmabiotic approach could be a therapeutic option for hyperammonemia, its development is clogged with poor identification of etiological microbes and low transplantation efficiency of candidate microbes. In this study, we developed a pharmabiotic treatment for hyperammonemia that employs a symbiotic pair of intestinal microbes that are both able to remove ammonia from the surrounding environment. By a radioactive tracing experiment in mice, we elucidated how the removal of ammonia by probiotics in the intestinal lumen leads to lower blood ammonia levels. After determination of the therapeutic mechanism, ammonia-removing probiotic strains were identified by high-throughput screening of gut microbes. The symbiotic partners of ammonia-removing probiotic strains were identified by screening intestinal microbes of a human gut, and the pairs were administrated to hyperammonemic mice to evaluate therapeutic efficacy. Blood ammonia was in a chemical equilibrium relationship with intestinal ammonia. Lactobacillus reuteri JBD400 removed intestinal ammonia to shift the chemical equilibrium to lower the blood ammonia level. L. reuteri JBD400 was successfully transplanted with a symbiotic partner, Streptococcus rubneri JBD420, improving transplantation efficiency 2.3×103 times more compared to the sole transplantation while lowering blood ammonia levels significantly. This work provides new pharmabiotics for the treatment of hyperammonemia as well as explains its therapeutic mechanism. Also, this approach provides a concept of symbiotic pairs approach in the emerging field of pharmabiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Institute for Medical Science, Chonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Chongkai Zhai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Institute for Medical Science, Chonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Jung-Rae Rho
- Department of Oceanography, Kunsan National University, Kunsan, South Korea
| | - Sangbum Lee
- Department of Oceanography, Kunsan National University, Kunsan, South Korea
| | - Ho Jin Heo
- Division of Applied Life Science [Brain Korea (BK) 21 Plus], Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, South Korea
| | - Sangwoo Kim
- JINIS BDRD Institute, JINIS Biopharmaceuticals Inc., Wanju, South Korea
| | - Hyeon Jin Kim
- JINIS BDRD Institute, JINIS Biopharmaceuticals Inc., Wanju, South Korea.,SNJ Pharma Inc., BioLabs Los Angeles (LA) in the Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Medical Center, Torrance, CA, United States
| | - Seong-Tshool Hong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Institute for Medical Science, Chonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju, South Korea
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11
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Yan RL, Chen RH. Autophagy and cancer metabolism-The two-way interplay. IUBMB Life 2021; 74:281-295. [PMID: 34652063 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is an intracellular catabolic process that degrades cytoplasmic components for recycling in response to stressed conditions, such as nutrient deprivation. Dysregulation of autophagy is associated with various diseases, including cancer. Although autophagy plays dichotomous and context-dependent roles in cancer, evidence has emerged that cancer cells exploit autophagy for metabolic adaptation. Autophagy is upregulated in many cancer types through tumor cell-intrinsic proliferation demands and the hypoxic and nutrient-limited tumor microenvironment (TME). Autophagy-induced breakdown products then fuel into various metabolic pathways to supply tumor cells with energy and building blocks for biosynthesis and survival. This bidirectional regulation between autophagy and tumor constitutes a vicious cycle to potentiate tumor growth and therapy resistance. In addition, the pro-tumor functions of autophagy are expanded to host, including cells in TME and distant organs. Thus, inhibition of autophagy or autophagy-mediated metabolic reprogramming may be a promising strategy for anticancer therapy. Better understanding the metabolic rewiring mechanisms of autophagy for its pro-tumor effects will provide insights into patient treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reui-Liang Yan
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ruey-Hwa Chen
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
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12
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Soria LR, Gurung S, De Sabbata G, Perocheau DP, De Angelis A, Bruno G, Polishchuk E, Paris D, Cuomo P, Motta A, Orford M, Khalil Y, Eaton S, Mills PB, Waddington SN, Settembre C, Muro AF, Baruteau J, Brunetti‐Pierri N. Beclin-1-mediated activation of autophagy improves proximal and distal urea cycle disorders. EMBO Mol Med 2021; 13:e13158. [PMID: 33369168 PMCID: PMC7863400 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202013158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Urea cycle disorders (UCD) are inherited defects in clearance of waste nitrogen with high morbidity and mortality. Novel and more effective therapies for UCD are needed. Studies in mice with constitutive activation of autophagy unravelled Beclin-1 as druggable candidate for therapy of hyperammonemia. Next, we investigated efficacy of cell-penetrating autophagy-inducing Tat-Beclin-1 (TB-1) peptide for therapy of the two most common UCD, namely ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) and argininosuccinate lyase (ASL) deficiencies. TB-1 reduced urinary orotic acid and improved survival under protein-rich diet in spf-ash mice, a model of OTC deficiency (proximal UCD). In AslNeo/Neo mice, a model of ASL deficiency (distal UCD), TB-1 increased ureagenesis, reduced argininosuccinate, and improved survival. Moreover, it alleviated hepatocellular injury and decreased both cytoplasmic and nuclear glycogen accumulation in AslNeo/Neo mice. In conclusion, Beclin-1-dependent activation of autophagy improved biochemical and clinical phenotypes of proximal and distal defects of the urea cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sonam Gurung
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
| | - Giulia De Sabbata
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and BiotechnologyTriesteItaly
| | | | | | - Gemma Bruno
- Telethon Institute of Genetics and MedicinePozzuoliItaly
| | | | - Debora Paris
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research CouncilPozzuoliItaly
| | - Paola Cuomo
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research CouncilPozzuoliItaly
| | - Andrea Motta
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research CouncilPozzuoliItaly
| | - Michael Orford
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
| | - Youssef Khalil
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
| | - Simon Eaton
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
| | | | - Simon N Waddington
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
- Wits/SAMRC Antiviral Gene Therapy Research UnitFaculty of Health SciencesUniversity of the WitwatersrandJohannesburgSouth Africa
| | | | - Andrés F Muro
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and BiotechnologyTriesteItaly
| | - Julien Baruteau
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
- Metabolic Medicine DepartmentGreat Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Nicola Brunetti‐Pierri
- Telethon Institute of Genetics and MedicinePozzuoliItaly
- Department of Translational MedicineFederico II UniversityNaplesItaly
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13
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Silva VR, Neves SP, Santos LDS, Dias RB, Bezerra DP. Challenges and Therapeutic Opportunities of Autophagy in Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12113461. [PMID: 33233671 PMCID: PMC7699739 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Autophagy is a physiological process characterized by the degradation of the cell components through lysosomes due to stimuli/stress. In this study, we review the challenges and therapeutic opportunities that autophagy presents in the treatment of cancer. We discussed the results of several studies that evaluated autophagy as a therapeutic strategy in cancer, both through the modulation of therapeutic resistance and the death of cancer cells. Moreover, we discussed the role of autophagy in the biology of cancer stem cells and the inhibition of this process as a strategy to overcome resistance and progression of cancer stem cells. Abstract Autophagy is a physiological cellular process that is crucial for development and can occurs in response to nutrient deprivation or metabolic disorders. Interestingly, autophagy plays a dual role in cancer cells—while in some situations, it has a cytoprotective effect that causes chemotherapy resistance, in others, it has a cytotoxic effect in which some compounds induce autophagy-mediated cell death. In this review, we summarize strategies aimed at autophagy for the treatment of cancer, including studies of drugs that can modulate autophagy-mediated resistance, and/or drugs that cause autophagy-mediated cancer cell death. In addition, the role of autophagy in the biology of cancer stem cells has also been discussed.
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14
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Yoo HC, Yu YC, Sung Y, Han JM. Glutamine reliance in cell metabolism. Exp Mol Med 2020; 52:1496-1516. [PMID: 32943735 PMCID: PMC8080614 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-020-00504-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 414] [Impact Index Per Article: 103.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
As knowledge of cell metabolism has advanced, glutamine has been considered an important amino acid that supplies carbon and nitrogen to fuel biosynthesis. A recent study provided a new perspective on mitochondrial glutamine metabolism, offering mechanistic insights into metabolic adaptation during tumor hypoxia, the emergence of drug resistance, and glutaminolysis-induced metabolic reprogramming and presenting metabolic strategies to target glutamine metabolism in cancer cells. In this review, we introduce the various biosynthetic and bioenergetic roles of glutamine based on the compartmentalization of glutamine metabolism to explain why cells exhibit metabolic reliance on glutamine. Additionally, we examined whether glutamine derivatives contribute to epigenetic regulation associated with tumorigenesis. In addition, in discussing glutamine transporters, we propose a metabolic target for therapeutic intervention in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Chan Yoo
- Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Ya Chun Yu
- Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Yulseung Sung
- Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Jung Min Han
- Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, South Korea.
- Department of Integrated OMICS for Biomedical Science, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.
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15
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Gelpi E, Rahimi J, Klotz S, Schmid S, Ricken G, Forcen-Vega S, Budka H, Kovacs GG. The autophagic marker p62 highlights Alzheimer type II astrocytes in metabolic/hepatic encephalopathy. Neuropathology 2020; 40:358-366. [PMID: 32483828 PMCID: PMC7496304 DOI: 10.1111/neup.12660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic/hepatic encephalopathy is neuropathologically characterized by the presence of Alzheimer type II astrocytes (AA II) with large and clear nuclear morphology. To date, there is no good immunohistochemical marker to better identify these cells. Here, we assessed cases of hepatic encephalopathy of different etiologies by immunohistochemistry using an anti‐p62 antibody. We observed peripheral or diffuse nuclear staining of variable intensity in AA II in all cases but not in normal controls or reactive astrocytes. We conclude that p62 is a useful immunohistochemical marker for the identification of AA II and may be helpful for the neuropathological diagnosis of metabolic/hepatic encephalopathy in difficult or equivocal cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Gelpi
- Division of Neuropathology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Neurological Tissue Bank of the Biobank of Hospital Clinic, August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jasmin Rahimi
- Department of Neurology and Karl Landsteiner Institute for Neuroimmunological and Neurodegenerative Disorders, Danube Hospital, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sigrid Klotz
- Division of Neuropathology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Susanne Schmid
- Division of Neuropathology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerda Ricken
- Division of Neuropathology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sara Forcen-Vega
- Neurology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol Hospital, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Herbert Budka
- Division of Neuropathology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gabor G Kovacs
- Division of Neuropathology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research (CNDR), Institute on Aging and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CRND) and Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Laboratory Medicine Program, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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16
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Mohammadi H, Sayad A, Mohammadi M, Niknahad H, Heidari R. N-acetyl cysteine treatment preserves mitochondrial indices of functionality in the brain of hyperammonemic mice. Clin Exp Hepatol 2020; 6:106-115. [PMID: 32728627 PMCID: PMC7380475 DOI: 10.5114/ceh.2020.95814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Acute or chronic live failure could result in hyperammonemia and hepatic encephalopathy (HE). HE is a clinical complication characterized by severe cognitive dysfunction and coma. The ammonium ion (NH4 +) is the most suspected toxic molecule involved in the pathogenesis of HE. NH4 + is a neurotoxic agent. Different mechanisms, including oxidative/nitrosative stress, inflammatory response, excitotoxicity, and mitochondrial impairment, are proposed for NH4 +-induced neurotoxicity. N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is a well-known thiol-reductant and antioxidant agent. Several investigations also mentioned the positive effects of NAC on mitochondrial function. In the current study, the effect of NAC treatment on brain mitochondrial indices and energy status was investigated in an animal model of HE. MATERIAL AND METHODS Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced acute liver failure was induced by a single dose of the drug (800 mg/kg, i.p.) to C57BL/6J mice. Plasma and brain levels of NH4 + were measured. Then, brain mitochondria were isolated, and several indices, including mitochondrial depolarization, ATP level, lipid peroxidation, glutathione content, mitochondrial permeabilization, and dehydrogenase activity, were assessed. RESULTS A significant increase in plasma and brain NH4 + was evident in APAP-treated animals. Moreover, mitochondrial indices of functionality were impaired, and mitochondrial oxidative stress biomarkers were significantly increased in APAP-treated mice. It was found that NAC treatment (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly mitigated mitochondrial impairment in the brain of APAP-treated animals. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest the effects of NAC on brain mitochondrial function and energy status as a pivotal mechanism involved in its neuroprotective properties during HE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamidreza Mohammadi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Sayad
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohsen Mohammadi
- Hepatitis Research Center, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Hossein Niknahad
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Reza Heidari
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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17
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Ranucci G, Rigoldi M, Cotugno G, Bernabei SM, Liguori A, Gasperini S, Goffredo BM, Martinelli D, Monti L, Francalanci P, Candusso M, Parini R, Dionisi-Vici C. Chronic liver involvement in urea cycle disorders. J Inherit Metab Dis 2019; 42:1118-1127. [PMID: 31260111 DOI: 10.1002/jimd.12144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The increased survival of urea cycle disorders (UCDs) patients has led the attention to clinical manifestations that characterize the long-term disease course. Acute and chronic liver disease have been anecdotally reported since the very first description of UCDs. However, a detailed analysis of long-term liver involvement in large patient cohorts is still needed. Chronic liver damage in UCDs has probably a multifactorial origin, but the specific underlying mechanisms of liver disease have not yet been well elucidated. In this study, we report on chronic liver involvement and on associated metabolic abnormalities in a large cohort of 102 UCD patients, followed by two reference centers in Italy. Chronic liver involvement was observed in over 60% of UCDs patients, and comparison between individual diseases showed a significant higher frequency in argininosuccinate lyase deficiency (ASLD) and in hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrullinemia (HHH) syndrome with elevation of transaminases and of gamma-GT in ASLD, and of alpha-fetoprotein in HHH syndrome. Also, consistent with a chronic hepatic dysfunction, ultrasound examination revealed more pronounced abnormalities in ASLD and in HHH syndrome, when compared to other UCDs. Our study highlights in a large UCDs patients' cohort that chronic liver disease is a common finding in UCDs, often with a distinct phenotype between different diseases. Furthers studies are needed to elucidate the specific involvement of different metabolic pathways in the pathogenesis of liver dysfunction in UCDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giusy Ranucci
- Division of Metabolism, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Miriam Rigoldi
- Medical Genetics Unit, Rare Diseases Center, ASST San Gerardo Hospital, Monza, Italy
| | - Giovanna Cotugno
- Division of Metabolism, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Maria Bernabei
- Division of Artificial Nutrition, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Liguori
- Division of Metabolism, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Serena Gasperini
- Pediatric Rare Diseases Unit, Department of Pediatrics, MBBM Foundation, ATS Monza e Brianza, Monza, Italy
| | | | - Diego Martinelli
- Division of Metabolism, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Lidia Monti
- Department of Radiology, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Francalanci
- Department of Pathology, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Manila Candusso
- Division of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Rossella Parini
- Pediatric Rare Diseases Unit, Department of Pediatrics, MBBM Foundation, ATS Monza e Brianza, Monza, Italy
| | - Carlo Dionisi-Vici
- Division of Metabolism, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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