Molecular recognition force spectroscopy study of the dynamic interaction between aptamer GBI-10 and extracellular matrix protein tenascin-C on human glioblastoma cell

Clinical advances in TNC delivery vectors and their conjugate agents

Tenascin C (TNC), a glycoprotein that is abundant in the tumor extracellular matrix (ECM), is strongly overexpressed in tumor tissues but virtually undetectable in most normal tissues. Many TNC antibodies, peptides, aptamers, and nanobodies have been investigated as delivery vectors, including 20A1, α-A2, α-A3, α-IIIB, α-D, BC-2, BC-4 BC-8, 81C6, ch81C6, F16, FHK, Ft, Ft-NP, G11, G11-iRGD, GBI-10, 19H12, J1/TN1, J1/TN2, J1/TN3, J1/TN4, J1/TN5, NJT3, NJT4, NJT6, P12, PL1, PL3, R6N, SMART, ST2146, ST2485, TN11, TN12, TNFnA1A2-Fc, TNfnA1D-Fc, TNfnBD-Fc, TNFnCD-Fc, TNfnD6-Fc, TNfn78-Fc, TTA1, TTA1.1, and TTA1.2. In particular, BC-2, BC-4, 81C6, ch81C6, F16, FHK, G11, PL1, PL3, R6N, ST2146, TN11, and TN12 have been tested in human tissues. G11-iRGD and simultaneous multiple aptamers and arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) targeting (SMART) may be assessed in clinical trials because G11, iRGD and AS1411 (SMART components) are already in clinical trials. Many TNC-conjugate agents, including antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), antibody fragment-drug conjugates (FDCs), immune-stimulating antibody conjugates (ISACs), and radionuclide-drug conjugates (RDCs), have been investigated in preclinical and clinical trials. RDCs investigated in clinical trials include 111In-DTPA-BC-2, 131I-BC-2, 131I-BC-4, 90Y-BC4, 131I81C6, 131I-ch81C6, 211At-ch81C6, F16124I, 131I-tenatumomab, ST2146biot, FDC 131I-F16S1PF(ab')2, and ISAC F16IL2. ADCs (including FHK-SSL-Nav, FHK-NB-DOX, Ft-NP-PTX, and F16*-MMAE) and ISACs (IL12-R6N and 125I-G11-IL2) may enter clinical trials because they contain components of marketed treatments or agents that were investigated in previous clinical studies. This comprehensive review presents historical perspectives on clinical advances in TNC-conjugate agents to provide timely information to facilitate tumor-targeting drug development using TNC.

A molecular hybrid comprising AS1411 and PDGF-BB aptamer, cholesterol, and doxorubicin for inhibiting proliferation of SW480 cells

Cancer treatment commonly relies on chemotherapy. This treatment faces many challenges, including treatment specificity and undesired side effects. To address these, a Dox-loaded Chol-aptamer molecular hybrid (Dox-CAH) was developed. This multivalent interaction system combines the key function of each integrated species: doxorubicin, cholesterol, and two aptamers binding to nucleolin and platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB). The study has four stages: preparation of CAH via oligonucleotide hybridization, intercalation of doxorubicin into CAH, verification of CAH binding on SW480 by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, and investigation of effect of Dox-CAH on SW480 proliferation. CAH was successfully prepared, as confirmed by electrophoresis. Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy demonstrated CAH binding to SW480, due to the presence of the AS1411 aptamer. This molecular hybrid exhibited specific binding because it did not bind to CCD 841 CoN. CAH binding to PDGF-BB compromises its function, as shown by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and cell assay. The DNA duplex in this molecular hybrid reduces the cytotoxicity of the Dox-CAH. Binding and the reduction of Dox-CAH toxicity may improve treatment specificity and minimize side effects. Dox-CAH is a model for more effective anticancer therapy, allowing incorporation of chemotherapeutic drugs and recognition elements.

The Role of RNA and DNA Aptamers in Glioblastoma Diagnosis and Therapy: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most lethal primary brain tumor of the central nervous system in adults. Despite advances in surgical and medical neuro-oncology, the median survival is about 15 months. For this reason, initial diagnosis, prognosis, and targeted therapy of GBM represent very attractive areas of study. Aptamers are short three-dimensional structures of single-stranded nucleic acids (RNA or DNA), identified by an in vitro process, named systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX), starting from a partially random oligonucleotide library. They bind to a molecular target with high affinity and specificity and can be easily modified to optimize binding affinity and selectivity. Thanks to their properties (low immunogenicity and toxicity, long stability, and low production variability), a large number of aptamers have been selected against GBM biomarkers and provide specific imaging agents and therapeutics to improve the diagnosis and treatment of GBM. However, the use of aptamers in GBM diagnosis and treatment still represents an underdeveloped topic, mainly due to limited literature in the research world. On these bases, we performed a systematic review aimed at summarizing current knowledge on the new promising DNA and RNA aptamer-based molecules for GBM diagnosis and treatment. Thirty-eight studies from 2000 were included and investigated. Seventeen involved the use of aptamers for GBM diagnosis and 21 for GBM therapy. Our findings showed that a number of DNA and RNA aptamers are promising diagnostic and therapeutic tools for GBM management.

Mapping the interaction sites of Mucin 1 and DNA aptamer by atomic force microscopy

Mucin 1 (MUC1) is an attractive tumor marker for cancer diagnosis. An advanced atomic force microscopy (AFM) mode, peak-force tapping AFM with an aptamer functionalized tip, was introduced to map the specific interaction sites of an aptamer and MUC1. Single molecular force spectroscopy (SMFS) was used to investigate dynamic parameters of the aptamer-MUC1.

Preparation and In Vitro Evaluation of a MRI Contrast Agent Based on Aptamer-Modified Gadolinium-Loaded Liposomes for Tumor Targeting

The aim of this study was to prepare aptamer-modified liposomes loaded with gadolinium (Gd) to enhance the effective diagnosis for tumor by MRI. A modified GBI-10 (GBI-10_m) was used to prepare targeted liposomes (G_mLs). Liposomes with GBI-10 aptamer (GLs) and without aptamer (non-targeted liposomes (NLs)) were also prepared as controls. The particle size and zeta potential of G_mLs, GLs, and NLs were all assayed. A clinical 3.0 T MR scanner was employed to assess the imaging efficiency and measure the longitudinal relaxivity (r ₁) of the above liposomes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry were used to analyze and compare the targeting effects of G_mLs, GLs, and NLs to MDA-MB-435s cells at 37°C. The particle size of the prepared liposomes was scattered at 100-200 nm, and their values of r ₁ were ∼4 mM^-1 s^-1. The images of confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that G_mLs in the cytoplasm were significantly more than GLs and both G_mLs and GLs were more than NLs. The fluorescence intensity of G_mLs was increased by about two times than that of GLs and three times than that of NLs by flow cytometry. Therefore, the G_mLs in this initial study were suggested to be a potential MRI contrast agent at 37°C for diagnosing tumors with the protein of tenascin-C over-expressed.

Amino acid polymorphisms in the fibronectin-binding repeats of fibronectin-binding protein A affect bond strength and fibronectin conformation

The Staphylococcus aureus cell surface contains cell wall-anchored proteins such as fibronectin-binding protein A (FnBPA) that bind to host ligands (e.g. fibronectin; Fn) present in the extracellular matrix of tissue or coatings on cardiac implants. Recent clinical studies have found a correlation between cardiovascular infections caused by S. aureus and nonsynonymous SNPs in FnBPA. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and molecular simulations were used to investigate interactions between Fn and each of eight 20-mer peptide variants containing amino acids Ala, Asn, Gln, His, Ile, and Lys at positions equivalent to 782 and/or 786 in Fn-binding repeat-9 of FnBPA. Experimentally measured bond lifetimes (1/k_off) and dissociation constants (K_d = k_off/k_on), determined by mechanically dissociating the Fn·peptide complex at loading rates relevant to the cardiovascular system, varied from the lowest-affinity H782A/K786A peptide (0.011 s, 747 μm) to the highest-affinity H782Q/K786N peptide (0.192 s, 15.7 μm). These atomic force microscopy results tracked remarkably well to metadynamics simulations in which peptide detachment was defined solely by the free-energy landscape. Simulations and SPR experiments suggested that an Fn conformational change may enhance the stability of the binding complex for peptides with K786I or H782Q/K786I (K_d^app = 0.2-0.5 μm, as determined by SPR) compared with the lowest-affinity double-alanine peptide (K_d^app = 3.8 μm). Together, these findings demonstrate that amino acid substitutions in Fn-binding repeat-9 can significantly affect bond strength and influence the conformation of Fn upon binding. They provide a mechanistic explanation for the observation of nonsynonymous SNPs in fnbA among clinical isolates of S. aureus that cause endovascular infections.

In vitro study of novel gadolinium-loaded liposomes guided by GBI-10 aptamer for promising tumor targeting and tumor diagnosis by magnetic resonance imaging

Novel gadolinium-loaded liposomes guided by GBI-10 aptamer were developed and evaluated in vitro to enhance magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis of tumor. Nontargeted gadolinium-loaded liposomes were achieved by incorporating amphipathic material, Gd (III) [N,N-bis-stearylamidomethyl-N'-amidomethyl] diethylenetriamine tetraacetic acid, into the liposome membrane using lipid film hydration method. GBI-10, as the targeting ligand, was then conjugated onto the liposome surface to get GBI-10-targeted gadolinium-loaded liposomes (GTLs). Both nontargeted gadolinium-loaded liposomes and GTLs displayed good dispersion stability, optimal size, and zeta potential for tumor targeting, as well as favorable imaging properties with enhanced relaxivity compared with a commercial MRI contrast agent (CA), gadopentetate dimeglumine. The use of GBI-10 aptamer in this liposomal system was intended to result in increased accumulation of gadolinium at the periphery of C6 glioma cells, where the targeting extracellular matrix protein tenascin-C is overexpressed. Increased cellular binding of GTLs to C6 cells was confirmed by confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and MRI, demonstrating the promise of this novel delivery system as a carrier of MRI contrast agent for the diagnosis of tumor. These studies provide a new strategy furthering the development of nanomedicine for both diagnosis and therapy of tumor.

Does Tenascin have Clinical Implications in Pathological Grade of Glioma Patients?: A Systematic Meta-Analysis

Tenascin (TN) is an extracellular oligomeric glycoprotein that participates in the adhesion of cells to extracellular matrixc (ECM). Studies have shown that the expression levels of TN are upregulated in a variety of cancers, including colon cancer, lung cancer, brain tumor, and breast cancer. However, the implications and utilities of TN in clinical grading and prognosis of glioma patients were seldom reported and the effects of its pathway are still unclear and controversial. Thus, it is essential to carry out a meta-analysis to draw a convincing conclusion.A literature search was carried out up to April 2015. Data was collected using a purpose-designed form including glioma's WHO grade, etc. Differences were expressed as odds ratios (ORs) or standard mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Galbr figure, Cochran's Q test, and I test were all performed to judge the heterogeneity between included studies. To examine the stability of the pooled results, a sensitivity analysis was performed. Potential publication bias was assessed by visual inspection of funnel plot. As this meta-analysis, as a systematic review, does not involve animal experiments or direct human trials, there is no need to conduct special ethic review and the ethical approval is not necessary.In this meta-analysis, 8 eligible studies involving 456 patients were incorporated. Six studies with dichotomous data revealed TN overexpression in glioma tissues and/or surrounding neoplastic vessels was closely associated with high WHO grade (III + IV) (odds ratio 3.398, 95% confidence interval 1.933, 5.974; P = 0.000); three continuous data studies showed there were close statistical associations between TN and WHO grade (SMD -2.114, 95% CI -2.580, -1.649; P = 0.000) too. Sensitivity analysis indicated a statistically robust result. No publication bias was revealed.Our meta-analysis suggests that TN expression is potentially associated with higher WHO grade of gliomas. More evidences on the basis of the evidence-based medicine are needed to prove it.

Nanoscale monitoring of drug actions on cell membrane using atomic force microscopy

Knowledge of the nanoscale changes that take place in individual cells in response to a drug is useful for understanding the drug action. However, due to the lack of adequate techniques, such knowledge was scarce until the advent of atomic force microscopy (AFM), which is a multifunctional tool for investigating cellular behavior with nanometer resolution under near-physiological conditions. In the past decade, researchers have applied AFM to monitor the morphological and mechanical dynamics of individual cells following drug stimulation, yielding considerable novel insight into how the drug molecules affect an individual cell at the nanoscale. In this article we summarize the representative applications of AFM in characterization of drug actions on cell membrane, including topographic imaging, elasticity measurements, molecular interaction quantification, native membrane protein imaging and manipulation, etc. The challenges that are hampering the further development of AFM for studies of cellular activities are aslo discussed.

Probing interactions between human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell and its aptamers at single-molecule resolution

Because cell-specific aptamers have high potential for biomedical applications, investigation of the interaction between cell and its aptamers may be of key importance for an improved understanding of biochemical processes. Herein, the interaction between human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell and its four aptamers was explored using single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS). The values of the unbinding force varied from 117.1 to 171.0 pN at the loading rate of 1.8 × 10(5)  pN/s. Based on the dependence of singe molecule force on the atomic force microscopy loading rate, the corresponding kinetic parameters were obtained. The results revealed two activation barriers and two transient states in the unbinding process of aptamer/cell interaction. More importantly, the binding sites on A549 cells with its four aptamers were defined to be different using SMFS and flow cytometry. This work demonstrated that SMFS can be used as a powerful tool for exploring the aptamer/cell binding behavior at the single-molecule level, and may provide valuable information for the design and application of aptamer probes.

Investigating biomolecular recognition at the cell surface using atomic force microscopy

Probing the interaction forces that drive biomolecular recognition on cell surfaces is essential for understanding diverse biological processes. Force spectroscopy has been a widely used dynamic analytical technique, allowing measurement of such interactions at the molecular and cellular level. The capabilities of working under near physiological environments, combined with excellent force and lateral resolution make atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based force spectroscopy a powerful approach to measure biomolecular interaction forces not only on non-biological substrates, but also on soft, dynamic cell surfaces. Over the last few years, AFM-based force spectroscopy has provided biophysical insight into how biomolecules on cell surfaces interact with each other and induce relevant biological processes. In this review, we focus on describing the technique of force spectroscopy using the AFM, specifically in the context of probing cell surfaces. We summarize recent progress in understanding the recognition and interactions between macromolecules that may be found at cell surfaces from a force spectroscopy perspective. We further discuss the challenges and future prospects of the application of this versatile technique.

Imaging and measuring the biophysical properties of Fc gamma receptors on single macrophages using atomic force microscopy

Fc gamma receptors (FcγR), widely expressed on effector cells (e.g., NK cells, macrophages), play an important role in clinical cancer immunotherapy. The binding of FcγRs to the Fc portions of antibodies that are attached to the target cells can activate the antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) killing mechanism which leads to the lysis of target cells. In this work, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to observe the cellular ultra-structures and measure the biophysical properties (affinity and distribution) of FcγRs on single macrophages in aqueous environments. AFM imaging was used to obtain the topographies of macrophages, revealing the nanoscale cellular fine structures. For molecular interaction recognition, antibody molecules were attached onto AFM tips via a heterobifunctional polyethylene glycol (PEG) crosslinker. With AFM single-molecule force spectroscopy, the binding affinities of FcγRs were quantitatively measured on single macrophages. Adhesion force mapping method was used to localize the FcγRs, revealing the nanoscale distribution of FcγRs on local areas of macrophages. The experimental results can improve our understanding of FcγRs on macrophages; the established approach will facilitate further research on physiological activities involved in antibody-based immunotherapy.