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Zbýň Š, Ludwig KD, Watkins LE, Lagore RL, Nowacki A, Tóth F, Tompkins MA, Zhang L, Adriany G, Gold GE, Shea KG, Nagel AM, Carlson CS, Metzger GJ, Ellermann JM. Changes in tissue sodium concentration and sodium relaxation times during the maturation of human knee cartilage: Ex vivo 23 Na MRI study at 10.5 T. Magn Reson Med 2024; 91:1099-1114. [PMID: 37997011 PMCID: PMC10751033 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.29930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the influence of skeletal maturation on sodium (23 Na) MRI relaxation parameters and the accuracy of tissue sodium concentration (TSC) quantification in human knee cartilage. METHODS Twelve pediatric knee specimens were imaged with whole-body 10.5 T MRI using a density-adapted 3D radial projection sequence to evaluate 23 Na parameters: B1 + , T1 , biexponentialT 2 * $$ {\mathrm{T}}_2^{\ast } $$ , and TSC. Water, collagen, and sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content were calculated from osteochondral biopsies. The TSC was corrected for B1 + , relaxation, and water content. The literature-based TSC (TSCLB ) used previously published values for corrections, whereas the specimen-specific TSC (TSCSP ) used measurements from individual specimens. 23 Na parameters were evaluated in eight cartilage compartments segmented on proton images. Associations between 23 Na parameters, TSCLB - TSCSP difference, biochemical content, and age were determined. RESULTS From birth to 12 years, cartilage water content decreased by 18%; collagen increased by 59%; and sGAG decreased by 36% (all R2 ≥ 0.557). The shortT 2 * $$ {\mathrm{T}}_2^{\ast } $$ (T 2 * S $$ {{\mathrm{T}}_2^{\ast}}_{\mathrm{S}} $$ ) decreased by 72%, and the signal fraction relaxing withT 2 * S $$ {{\mathrm{T}}_2^{\ast}}_{\mathrm{S}} $$ (fT 2 * S $$ {{\mathrm{fT}}_2^{\ast}}_{\mathrm{S}} $$ ) increased by 55% during the first 5 years but remained relatively stable after that. TSCSP was significantly correlated with sGAG content from biopsies (R2 = 0.739). Depending on age, TSCLB showed higher or lower values than TSCSP . The TSCLB - TSCSP difference was significantly correlated withT 2 * S $$ {{\mathrm{T}}_2^{\ast}}_{\mathrm{S}} $$ (R2 = 0.850),fT 2 * S $$ {{\mathrm{fT}}_2^{\ast}}_{\mathrm{S}} $$ (R2 = 0.651), and water content (R2 = 0.738). CONCLUSION TSC and relaxation parameters measured with 23 Na MRI provide noninvasive information about changes in sGAG content and collagen matrix during cartilage maturation. Cartilage TSC quantification assuming fixed relaxation may be feasible in children older than 5 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Štefan Zbýň
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
- Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH
| | - Kai D. Ludwig
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
- Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Lauren E. Watkins
- Department of Radiology, Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, CO
| | - Russell L. Lagore
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Amanda Nowacki
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
- University of Texas, Austin, TX
| | - Ferenc Tóth
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
| | - Marc A. Tompkins
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Lin Zhang
- Division of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Gregor Adriany
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Garry E. Gold
- Department of Radiology, Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
| | - Kevin G. Shea
- Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA
| | - Armin M. Nagel
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
- Division of Medical Physics in Radiology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Cathy S. Carlson
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
| | - Gregory J. Metzger
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Jutta M. Ellermann
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
- Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
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Elangovan SM, Meyers AB. Pearls and Pitfalls of Imaging of the Developing Pediatric Skeleton: Differentiating Normal and Pathology With MRI. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 2022; 43:73-87. [PMID: 35164912 DOI: 10.1053/j.sult.2021.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Developmental changes occurring in the pediatric skeleton throughout childhood cause imaging appearances that may be confused with pathology. Knowledge of the typical pattern of red to yellow bone marrow conversion and areas of normal developmental irregular ossification is essential for radiologists interpreting musculoskeletal imaging in children to avoid mistaking normal findings for disease. Here we review the normal conversion of hematopoietic to yellow marrow on pediatric MRI and illustrate how MRI can distinguish the normal areas of irregular ossification from various pathology that can occur at and around growth centers in the developing skeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey M Elangovan
- Department of Radiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Arthur B Meyers
- Department of Radiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH.
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3
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Martel G, Forget C, Gilbert G, Richard H, Moser T, Olive J, Laverty S. Validation of the ultrasonographic assessment of the femoral trochlea epiphyseal cartilage in foals at osteochondrosis predilected sites with magnetic resonance imaging and histology. Equine Vet J 2017; 49:821-828. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Martel
- Département des Sciences Cliniques; Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire; Université de Montréal; St-Hyacinthe Quebec Canada
| | - C. Forget
- Service vétérinaire Dr Claude Forget; St-Jérôme Quebec Canada
| | - G. Gilbert
- Philips Healthcare; MR Clinical Science; Markham Ontario Canada
| | - H. Richard
- Département des Sciences Cliniques; Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire; Université de Montréal; St-Hyacinthe Quebec Canada
| | - T. Moser
- Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal; Hôpital Notre-Dame; Montréal Quebec Canada
| | - J. Olive
- Animal Oncology and Imaging Center; Rotkreuz Switzerland
| | - S. Laverty
- Département des Sciences Cliniques; Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire; Université de Montréal; St-Hyacinthe Quebec Canada
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Tóth F, Nissi MJ, Zhang J, Benson M, Schmitter S, Ellermann JM, Carlson CS. Histological confirmation and biological significance of cartilage canals demonstrated using high field MRI in swine at predilection sites of osteochondrosis. J Orthop Res 2013; 31:2006-12. [PMID: 23939946 PMCID: PMC4034470 DOI: 10.1002/jor.22449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Cartilage canal vessels in epiphyseal cartilage have a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of osteochondrosis/osteochondritis dissecans. The present study aimed to validate high field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods to visualize these vessels in young pigs. Osteochondral samples from the distal femur and distal humerus (predilection sites of osteochondrosis) of piglets were imaged post-mortem: (1) using susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) in an MRI scanner, followed by histological evaluation; and (2) after barium perfusion using µCT, followed by clearing techniques. In addition, both stifle joints of a 25-day-old piglet were imaged in vivo using SWI and gadolinium enhanced T1-weighted MRI, after which distal femoral samples were harvested and evaluated using µCT and histology. Histological sections were compared to corresponding MRI slices, and three-dimensional visualizations of vessels identified using MRI were compared to those obtained using µCT and to the cleared specimens. Vessels contained in cartilage canals were identified using MRI, both ex vivo and in vivo; their locations matched those observed in the histological sections, µCT images, and cleared specimens of barium-perfused tissues. The ability to visualize cartilage canal blood vessels by MRI, without using a contrast agent, will allow future longitudinal studies to evaluate their role in developmental orthopedic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Tóth
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
| | - Mikko J. Nissi
- Department of Radiology, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Jinjin Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Michael Benson
- Department of Radiology, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Sebastian Schmitter
- Department of Radiology, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Jutta M. Ellermann
- Department of Radiology, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Cathy S. Carlson
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
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Nissi MJ, Toth F, Zhang J, Schmitter S, Benson M, Carlson CS, Ellermann JM. Susceptibility weighted imaging of cartilage canals in porcine epiphyseal growth cartilage ex vivo and in vivo. Magn Reson Med 2013; 71:2197-205. [PMID: 23857631 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.24863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE High-resolution visualization of cartilage canals has been restricted to histological methods and contrast-enhanced imaging. In this study, the feasibility of non-contrast-enhanced susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) for visualization of the cartilage canals was investigated ex vivo at 9.4 T, further explored at 7 and 3 T and demonstrated in vivo at 7 T, using a porcine animal model. METHODS SWI scans of specimens of distal femur and humerus from 1 to 8 week-old piglets were conducted at 9.4 T using 3D-GRE sequence and SWI post-processing. The stifle joints of a 2-week old piglet were scanned ex vivo at 7 and 3 T. Finally, the same sites of a 3-week-old piglet were scanned, in vivo, at 7 T under general anesthesia using the vendor-provided sequences. RESULTS High-contrast visualization of the cartilage canals was obtained ex vivo, especially at higher field strengths; the results were confirmed histologically. In vivo feasibility was demonstrated at 7 T and comparison of ex vivo scans at 3 and 7 T indicated feasibility of using SWI at 3 T. CONCLUSIONS High-resolution 3D visualization of cartilage canals was demonstrated using SWI. This demonstration of fully noninvasive visualization opens new avenues to explore skeletal maturation and the role of vascular supply for diseases such as osteochondrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikko J Nissi
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research and Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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The trochlear pre-ossification center: a normal developmental stage and potential pitfall on MR images. Pediatr Radiol 2012; 42:1364-71. [PMID: 22810145 DOI: 10.1007/s00247-012-2454-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Revised: 05/19/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The hypertrophic changes that occur in the cartilage of an epiphysis prior to the onset of ossification are known as the pre-ossification center. Awareness of the appearance of the pre-ossification center on MR images is important to avoid confusing normal developmental changes with pathology. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of the trochlear pre-ossification center on MR imaging and examine age and gender differences. MATERIALS AND METHODS We retrospectively analyzed MR images from 61 children. The trochleas were categorized into three types on the basis of signal intensity (SI). Trochlear types were compared to age and gender. RESULTS There was no significant difference between the ages of boys and girls. Type 1 trochleas showed homogeneous SI on all pulse sequences. Type 2 trochleas demonstrated a focus of high SI in the epiphyseal cartilage on fat-suppressed water-sensitive sequences, with high or intermediate SI on gradient-echo images (pre-ossification center). Type 3 trochleas showed low SI on fat-suppressed water-sensitive sequences and gradient-echo images. Thirty-seven trochleas were described as type 1, sixteen as type 2 and eight as type 3. ANOVAs confirmed a statistically significant difference in the age of children with type 3 trochleas and those with types 1 and 2 (P < 0.001). Spearman rank correlations determined a positive relationship between trochlear type and age of the children (r = 0.53). CONCLUSION Development-related changes in the trochlea follow a predictable pattern. The signal characteristics of the pre-ossification center likely reflect normal chondrocyte hypertrophy and an increase in free water in the matrix.
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Lecocq M, Girard CA, Fogarty U, Beauchamp G, Richard H, Laverty S. Cartilage matrix changes in the developing epiphysis: early events on the pathway to equine osteochondrosis? Equine Vet J 2008; 40:442-54. [PMID: 18487100 DOI: 10.2746/042516408x297453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY The earliest osteochondrosis (OC) microscopic lesion reported in the literature was present in the femorotibial joint of a 2-day-old foal suggesting that OC lesions and factors initiating them may arise prior to birth. OBJECTIVE To examine the developing equine epiphysis to detect histological changes that could be precursors to OC lesions. METHODS Osteochondral samples from 21 equine fetuses and 13 foals were harvested from selected sites in the scapulohumeral, humeroradial, metacarpophalangeal, femoropatellar, femorotibial, tarsocrural and metatarsophalangeal joints. Sections were stained with safranin O and picrosiruis red to assess cartilage changes and structural arrangement of the collagen matrix. RESULTS Extracellular matrix changes observed included perivascular areas of paleness of the proteoglycan matrix associated with hypocellularity and, sometimes, necrotic chondrocytes. These changes were most abundant in the youngest fetuses and in the femoropatellar/femorotibial (FP/FT) joints. Indentations of the ossification front were also observed in most specimens, but, most frequently, in scapulohumeral and FP/FT joints. A cartilage canal was almost always present in these indentations. The vascular density of the cartilage was higher in the youngest fetuses. In these fetuses, the most vascularised joints were the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints but their cartilage canals regressed quickly. After birth, the most vascularised cartilage was present in the FP/FT joint. Articular cartilage differentiated into 4 zones early in fetal life and the epiphyseal cartilage also had a distinct zonal cartilage structure. A striking difference was observed in the collagen structure at the junction of the proliferative and hypertrophic zones where OCD lesions occur. CONCLUSION Matrix and ossification front changes were frequently observed and significantly associated with cartilage canals suggesting that they may be physiological changes associated with matrix remodelling and development. The collagen structure was variable through the growing epiphysis and a differential in biomechanical properties at focal sites may predispose them to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lecocq
- Département de sciences cliniques, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Shinar H, Navon G. Multinuclear NMR and microscopic MRI studies of the articular cartilage nanostructure. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2006; 19:877-93. [PMID: 17075957 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.1068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Studies of the structure of articular cartilage by a number of NMR spectroscopic and imaging techniques are reviewed. Advantage is taken of the fact that the NMR investigations can be done non-invasively on the intact tissue and do not require sectioning, slicing and decalcification as in the case of electron microscopy. The different contributions to 1H T2 relaxation are described and it is pointed out that ignoring the biexponential behavior of the transverse relaxation can lead to serious errors in the proton density measurements and the T2 characterization of the articular cartilage. A way to slow the transverse relaxation and to minimize its angular dependence by the use of dipolar echo is described. 2H double quantum filtered spectroscopic MRI is a powerful technique to follow the orientation and density of the collagen fibers in articular cartilage. Using this technique, it was found that attachment of the cartilage to the bone has a stabilizing effect on the collagen matrix and that the hydroxyapatite in the calcified zone resides near the collagen fibers but does not contribute to their order. In response to mechanical pressure, it was shown that the collagen fibers flatten near the surface and become crimped near the bone. A number of NMR techniques have been described for the measurement of 23Na residual quadrupolar interaction. It was found that this can serve as a very sensitive measure of the depletion of proteoglycans. Finally, a combination of the above techniques was used to study a maturation of articular cartilage in pigs. The increased order and density of the collagen fibers from newborn to adult pigs revealed itself as a shortening of T2 and significant increase of the residual quadrupolar interaction of both 2H and 23Na nuclei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadassah Shinar
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel
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Keinan-Adamsky K, Shinar H, Navon G. Multinuclear NMR and MRI studies of the maturation of pig articular cartilage. Magn Reson Med 2006; 55:532-40. [PMID: 16450338 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.20775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The maturation of pig articular cartilage was followed by (2)H in-phase double quantum filtered (IP-DQF) spectroscopic MRI, (1)H T(2) MRI, and (23)Na DQF and triple quantum filtered MRS. The results all lead to the conclusion that the order and density of the collagen fibers in articular cartilage increase from birth to maturity. At birth, both (2)H IP-DQF signal and (1)H T(2) were homogeneous throughout the cartilage and their values independent of the orientation of the plug relative to the magnetic field. At maturation, the (2)H IP-DQF spectrum near the bone is composed of two pairs of quadrupolar split satellites and the (1)H T(2) relaxation is biexponential, indicating the presence of two groups of collagen fibers. The (2)H satellites are orientation dependent, indicating that the two groups of fibers are well ordered at maturation. The fast component of (1)H T(2) is also orientation dependent and thus we have concluded that this component results from residual dipolar interaction, while the slow T(2) component in mature cartilage, as well as the T(2) relaxation in immature cartilage, is governed by other mechanisms.
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Akella SVS, Regatte RR, Wheaton AJ, Borthakur A, Reddy R. Reduction of residual dipolar interaction in cartilage by spin-lock technique. Magn Reson Med 2005; 52:1103-9. [PMID: 15508163 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.20241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The influence of radiofrequency (RF) spin-lock pulse on the laminar appearance of articular cartilage in MR images was investigated. Spin-lock MRI experiments were performed on bovine cartilage plugs on a 4.7 Tesla small-bore MRI scanner, and on human knee cartilage in vivo on a 1.5 Tesla clinical scanner. When the normal to the surface of cartilage was parallel to B0, a typical laminar appearance was exhibited in T2-weighted images of cartilage plugs, but was absent in T1rho-weighted images of the same plugs. At the "magic angle" orientation (when the normal to the surface of cartilage was 54.7 degrees with respect to B0), neither the T2 nor the T1rho images demonstrated laminae. At the same time, T1rho values were greater than T2 at both orientations throughout the cartilage. T1rho dispersion (i.e., the dependence of the relaxation rate on the spin-lock frequency omega1) was observed, which reached a steady-state value of close to 2 kHz in both parallel and magic-angle orientations. These results suggest that residual dipolar interaction from motionally-restricted water and relaxation processes, such as chemical exchange, contribute to T1rho dispersion in cartilage. Further, one can reduce the laminar appearance in human articular cartilage by applying spin-lock RF pulses, which may lead to a more accurate diagnosis of degenerative changes in cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarma V S Akella
- MMRRCC, Department of Radiology, B1, Stellar-Chance Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia 19104-6100, USA.
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Seifert J, Matthes G, Hinz P, Paris S, Mutze S, Ekkernkamp A, Stengel D. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of distal tibia fractures in adolescents. J Pediatr Orthop 2004; 23:727-32. [PMID: 14581775 DOI: 10.1097/00004694-200311000-00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This prospective study was performed to assess the benefits of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) compared with plain radiographs in the diagnosis and analysis of transitional fractures in terms of fracture type, anatomy, and dislocation. During a 24-month period, 22 adolescents with a fracture of the distal tibial epiphysis were treated. In addition to plain film radiographs, MR images of the distal tibia were also obtained. Plain film radiographs and MR images were randomized and diagnosed by two surgeons and two radiologists. Fifteen transitional fractures were diagnosed using plain radiographs, while 17 transitional fractures could be found with MRI. Fracture type was misclassified, fracture displacement was underestimated in general, and rotational displacements were not visualized on plain film radiographs. MRI was found to provide anatomic detail and information superior to plain film radiographs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Seifert
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Unfallkrankenhaus, Berlin, Germany.
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Goodwin DW, Wadghiri YZ, Zhu H, Vinton CJ, Smith ED, Dunn JF. Macroscopic structure of articular cartilage of the tibial plateau: influence of a characteristic matrix architecture on MRI appearance. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004; 182:311-8. [PMID: 14736653 DOI: 10.2214/ajr.182.2.1820311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of our study was to describe the structural organization of the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage of the tibial plateau and its influence on MRI appearance. MATERIALS AND METHODS Spin-echo images of 11 resected tibial plateaus acquired at 7 T were compared with the structure of the extracellular matrix as shown by fracture sectioning the samples in the plane of imaging. Four samples were scanned at two different orientations relative to the main magnetic field (B(0)). T2 maps were acquired in two orientations on three of these four samples. RESULTS On the basis of the presence of reproducible regional variations in the shape of the matrix, a characteristic matrix architecture was described. The location of peak signal intensity and T2 on MRI correlated with the level at which the matrix was estimated to be aligned at approximately 55 degrees to B(0) (r = 0.91). This correlation of matrix orientation relative to B(0) with T2 and signal intensity on MRI was not altered by regional variations in the shape of the matrix or by imaging samples at two different orientations. CONCLUSION The structure of the extracellular matrix, through its orientation-dependent influence on T2 decay, exerts a strong influence on the MRI appearance of cartilage. At the tibial plateau, a characteristic matrix architecture is associated with an equally characteristic MRI appearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas W Goodwin
- Department of Radiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, One Medical Center Dr, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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Li X, Wang R, Li Y, Tang L, Xu A, Hu J. MRI characteristics and transverse relaxation time measurements in normal growing cartilage. Curr Med Sci 2004; 24:411-3. [PMID: 15587412 DOI: 10.1007/bf02861881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2004] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To determine the characteristics of magnetic resonance (MR) signals of normal growing cartilage and identify the difference in transverse relaxation times between physeal and epiphyseal cartilage in vivo. 24 distal femora of 12 two-week-old piglets were imaged on a 1.5 Tesla GE MR scanner. Comparison was made between signal intensity on MR images and the structure shown in corresponding histologic sections. T2 values were measured in eight piglets by means of multiecho spin-echo sequences. Our results showed that MR imaging delineated five regions between the secondary ossification center and the metaphysis, which histologically correspond to the zone of provisional calcification of the secondary ossification center, physis of the secondary ossification center, epiphyseal cartilage, physis and zone of provisional calcification. The T2 value in the physeal cartilage was much larger than that in the epiphyseal cartilage (P<0.05). It is concluded that MRI findings could differentiate the different regions of growing cartilage. T2 is longer in physeal than in epiphyseal cartilage, perhaps reflecting differences in water binding by proteoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Li
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
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Xia Y, Moody JB, Alhadlaq H, Hu J. Imaging the physical and morphological properties of a multi-zone young articular cartilage at microscopic resolution. J Magn Reson Imaging 2003; 17:365-74. [PMID: 12594728 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.10269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterize a number of physical and morphologic properties of young articular cartilage. These properties include the anisotropy of T(2) relaxation, optical retardation, orientation of the collagen fibrils, total thickness of the tissue, number of histologic sub-zones in the tissue, width of individual sub-zones, and correlation between the depths of the local T(2) maxima and the local retardation minima. MATERIALS AND METHODS Microscopic magnetic resonance imaging (mciro MRI) and polarized light microscopy (PLM) were used to examine three side-by-side specimens from a humeral head of a three-month-old beagle that exhibited a unique topographic heterogeneity from three-zones centrally to multi-zone peripherally. RESULTS The centrally located specimen showed that the collagen fibrils across the tissue depth have a pattern of the classic three histologic sub-zones (tangential, transitional, and radial). A much more complicated multi-zone structure was found in the specimen located peripherally, with a second transitional zone and a second tangential zone located at the deep part of the tissue. We also showed that the orientation of the collagen fibrils that form the cocoon-shaped territorial matrix surrounding the clusters of chondrocytes can be imaged by our PLM technique. CONCLUSION The results from the young animal in this report, together with our observations from older animals, demonstrate that MRI and PLM can be used to study the epiphyseal expansion of cartilage in young animals during its growth and subsequent loss in older animals. An illustrative model for the structure of collagen fibrils in a humeral head is suggested as an extension to the classic three-zone model for young articular cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Xia
- Department of Physics and Center for Biomedical Research, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan 48309, USA.
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Olivier P, Loeuille D, Watrin A, Walter F, Etienne S, Netter P, Gillet P, Blum A. Structural evaluation of articular cartilage: potential contribution of magnetic resonance techniques used in clinical practice. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2001; 44:2285-95. [PMID: 11665969 DOI: 10.1002/1529-0131(200110)44:10<2285::aid-art391>3.0.co;2-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether routine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques can detect age-related structural modifications of bovine articular cartilage. METHODS The cartilage of 3-month-old, 3-year-old, and 13-year-old animals was studied. T1- and T2-weighted MR sequences were performed using a 1.5T clinical imager and a 3-inch surface coil. Histologic slices (5 microm) of cartilage specimens were stained with picrosirius red (for collagen) and toluidine blue (for glycosaminoglycans [GAGs]). A polarized light study was performed to determine the collagen network organization. Except for the 13-year-old animal cartilage, the biochemical content was studied on slices cut parallel to the surface to determine GAG and hydroxyproline (collagen) content. Cartilage profiles were performed to determine the MR pixel intensity and the histologic color intensity. RESULTS On T1-weighted images, the cartilage was homogeneous, with pixel intensity profiles presenting low variations. On T2-weighted images, the cartilage was laminar in the 3-month-old animals and became homogeneous thereafter. The pixel intensity varied through the cartilage depth with a profile that depended on the age of the animal. The collagen and GAG staining showed abrupt transitions in the 3-month-old animal, while in older animals the cartilage became more homogeneous with a mild gradient of matrix constituents with depth. These results were confirmed by findings of a biochemical study. In addition to these matrix content variations, the bovine cartilage presented modifications of its collagen network organization with aging. CONCLUSION The MR T2-weighted sequences depicted signal variations with age in bovine cartilage concomitant with modifications in its structure. If confirmed in clinics, these observations will reinforce the place of MRI in characterizing cartilage with aging and pathologic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Olivier
- Unité Mixte de Recherches 7561 CNRS-UHP Nancy I, France
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Xia Y, Moody JB, Burton-Wurster N, Lust G. Quantitative in situ correlation between microscopic MRI and polarized light microscopy studies of articular cartilage. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2001; 9:393-406. [PMID: 11467887 DOI: 10.1053/joca.2000.0405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish the correlation between the non-invasive imaging by magnetic resonance microscopy (microMRI) and the histological imaging by polarized light microscopy (PLM) accurately, quantitatively, at the highest possible MRI resolution (13.7 microm), and based on the same piece of tissue (articular cartilage from canine shoulder joint). DESIGN In microMRI experiments, the laminar appearance (the magic angle effect) of the proton intensity images and the anisotropic characteristics of the T(2)relaxation images were analysed. In PLM experiments, the images of the optical retardation and collagen-fibre orientation in cartilage were constructed in two dimensions. RESULTS The T(2)profile has a distinctly asymmetric bell-shaped curve and three featured zones. The retardation profile has a non-zero minimum at the middle of the transitional zone of the tissue. The angle profile has a smooth variation across the transitional zone. These facts suggest that the collagen fibres in the transitional zone are not entirely random but have a residual order. In addition, the peak of the T(2)profile coincides with the minimum of the retardation profile, both represent the most isotropic region of the tissue. A hyperbolic tangent function was found to best describe the transition of the collagen fibres in cartilage. A set of criteria was developed for each technique to define the features in the quantitative measurements. CONCLUSIONS The criteria offer, for the first time, a set of quantitative and objective means to subdivide the tissue thickness into the zones in histology and in MRI. It is shown that the microMRI zones based on the T(2)characteristics are statistically equivalent to the histological zones based on the collagen fibre orientation (t-probabilities of 0.730, 0.973, 0.647, 0.850 for the superficial, transitional, radial zones and the total thickness).
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Xia
- Department of Physics and Center for Biomedical Research, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan 48309, USA.
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Abstract
Basic physical and physicochemical properties of articular cartilage are correlated with the MR parameters of this tissue. From these parameters, the typical appearance of cartilage in MR images is deduced. Some practical implications for clinical utilization of MRI of articular cartilage are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Mlynárik
- Department of Radiology, University of Vienna, Austria.
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18
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Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES The laminar appearance of articular cartilage in magnetic resonance (MR) images has been a source of confusion, especially concerning the number, intensity, thickness, and origin of the layers. The laminar appearance is associated with the magic-angle effect in the MR imaging (MRI) of articular cartilage. METHODS This article introduces the topic with background information about cartilage and the magic-angle effect and then reviews the literature about the magic-angle effect. The review concludes with a brief discussion of the future directions of study and the potential clinical relevance of the laminae in MR images of articular cartilage. CONCLUSIONS The magic-angle effect is commonly seen in MR images of several tissues. The direct cause of the laminar appearance of articular cartilage is the T2 relaxation anisotropy in the tissue, which is closely linked to the structure of the collagen fibers, their orientation in the magnetic field, and the water-proteoglycan interaction that amplifies the prevailing orientation of the collagen fiber network. The laminar appearance of cartilage has an intrinsic spatial heterogeneity over the two-dimensional joint surface, which leads to inconsistencies in the reported total number of cartilage laminae and the laminar patterns observable in MRI, depending on where the sample was taken. Two additional thin, low-intensity laminae may also be visible at the boundaries of the cartilage with fluid and with bone; whether these boundary laminae are identified and counted with the others may introduce inconsistency in the results reported by various researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Xia
- Department of Physics and Center for Biomedical Research, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan 48309, USA.
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19
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the discrepancy in the number of laminae observed in magnetic resonance (MR) images of articular cartilage (the magic angle effect in MRI of cartilage). Microscopic MR imaging (muMRI) experiments were carried out at 14-micrometer pixel resolution on full-depth cartilage-bone plugs from several locations (central, intermediate, and peripheral) on the humeral heads of two young healthy beagles. When the articular surface of the plug was perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, the cartilage appeared to have two layers in the plugs from the central locations of the humeral head, three layers in the plugs from the greater tubercle side of the humeral head, and three or five layers in the plugs from the lesser tubercle side. This heterogeneity of cartilage laminae was observed within a single humeral head and was symmetrical about the median plane of the animal. This result suggests that some structural variations related to cartilage structure in various regions of load bearing may cause some unique laminar patterns seen in MRI of cartilage. This novel and new observation may resolve the controversy about whether cartilage appears as two or three layers in MR images. A comprehensive model for the collagen structure over a curved two-dimensional surface of a joint is suggested as a replacement of the classic three-zone model of fiber orientation in collagen. This heterogeneity of cartilage laminae is speculated to be related to the load-bearing status of the tissue in the joint. The ability to visualize such structural heterogeneity is important because of the direct connection between collagen structure and the mechanical characteristics of cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Xia
- Department of Physics and Center for Biomedical Research, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan 48309, USA.
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Varich LJ, Laor T, Jaramillo D. Normal maturation of the distal femoral epiphyseal cartilage: age-related changes at MR imaging. Radiology 2000; 214:705-9. [PMID: 10715034 DOI: 10.1148/radiology.214.3.r00mr20705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine how signal intensity in the cartilaginous distal part of the femoral epiphysis varies with (a) age, (b) sex, and (c) distribution to the medial or lateral condyle on magnetic resonance (MR) images. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sixty-six sagittal T2-weighted or inversion-recovery MR images of the distal femoral epiphysis in children aged 2 months to 5 years 5 months were evaluated. Epiphyses were categorized into five types on the basis of progressive signal intensity changes within the epiphyseal cartilage along the weight-bearing region and posterior condyles. Epiphyseal type was compared with age, sex, and distribution of signal intensity changes within the condyle. RESULTS In early infancy, epiphyseal cartilage was homogeneous. During the 2nd year, signal intensity along the weight-bearing region decreased. With further advancing age, signal intensity in the posterior femoral condyles increased and became progressively more focal. The increase in epiphyseal grade correlated with age for both the medial and the lateral femoral condyles (r = 0.71 and r = 0.77, respectively; P < .001). There was no significant difference in epiphyseal changes between boys and girls or between medial and lateral condyles. CONCLUSION There is normal age-related variation in MR imaging signal intensity within the cartilaginous epiphysis of the distal femur. This may be related to weight bearing and epiphyseal maturation and should not be confused with disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Varich
- Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Goodwin DW, Zhu H, Dunn JF. In vitro MR imaging of hyaline cartilage: correlation with scanning electron microscopy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000; 174:405-9. [PMID: 10658715 DOI: 10.2214/ajr.174.2.1740405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Our goal was to determine how the three-dimensional structure of hyaline cartilage affects its MR appearance and to correlate this appearance with detailed structural analysis using scanning electron microscopy and freeze-fracture sectioning techniques. MATERIALS AND METHODS In vitro 7-T spin-echo MR images of hyaline cartilage specimens from four patients undergoing above-knee amputations were obtained parallel and perpendicular to the main magnetic field. Specimens were imaged with low- and high-power scanning electron microscopy after freeze fracturing. The corresponding images from both techniques were analyzed with specific attention to the three-dimensional structure of the cartilage, collagen fibril orientation, and respective changes in the MR appearance. RESULTS Freeze fracturing of cartilage reveals a curved fracture plane. Expected changes in signal intensity predicted by the magic angle effect correlated with observed changes in signal intensity across the thickness of the sample. Changes in individual collagen fibril orientation did not correspond to MR layering. CONCLUSION The three-dimensional organization of collagen in cartilage has a strong influence on the MR appearance of cartilage. This influence is caused by the restriction of water mobility and the resulting magic angle effect caused by curvature of the collagen network, possibly because of the influence on proteoglycan orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Goodwin
- Department of Radiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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Babyn PS, Kim HK, Gahunia HK, Lemaire C, Salter RB, Fornasier V, Pritzker KP. MRI of the cartilaginous epiphysis of the femoral head in the piglet hip after ischemic damage. J Magn Reson Imaging 1998; 8:717-23. [PMID: 9626892 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.1880080331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
MRI of the cartilaginous epiphysis (CE) of piglet femoral head was performed after ischemic damage to study the changes in the CE found on MRI and to correlate these changes with histologic findings. Avascular necrosis of the femoral head was induced with a suture ligature in nine piglets; one piglet was killed postoperatively on day 3 and on weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8 (two piglets were killed on week 3). MRI of the ischemic and contralateral nonischemic hip joints were obtained with a 60-mm field of view (low resolution MRI). Biopsy cores of the femoral heads were imaged with a 15-mm field of view (high resolution MRI) and correlated with histologic sections. The CE for all operated hips, except for the 3-day postoperative specimen, showed evidence of ischemic changes on histologic assessment; the severity of damage increased with time. The MRI appearance of ischemic and nonischemic CE was clearly different by 2 weeks after the operation. No trilaminar signal pattern was evident in the high resolution T2-weighted (T2W) imaging of the ischemic CE from 2 weeks after the operation. In the 3- to 8-week postoperative specimens, focal areas of low signal intensity on high resolution T1-weighted (T1W) and T2W imaging corresponded to the areas of chondronecrosis found on histologic assessment. The regions of high signal intensity on T2W imaging corresponded to the areas of chondrocyte clusters with increased safranin-O staining. High resolution MRI can demonstrate changes in the CE associated with ischemic injury and may have a role in the assessment of the CE and its development after ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Babyn
- Department of Diagnostic Imaging, The Hospital for Sick Children, Ontario, Canada
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