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Lei X, Wang X, Li Y, Liu H, Yan G, Jing J, Liang Z, Guo A, Hu M, Liu Y. Comparison of knee joint and temporomandibular joint development in pig embryos. Anim Biotechnol 2024; 35:2337760. [PMID: 38656923 DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2024.2337760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Although the knee joint (KNJ) and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) all belong to the synovial joint, there are many differences in developmental origin, joint structure and articular cartilage type. Studies of joint development in embryos have been performed, mainly using poultry and rodents. However, KNJ and TMJ in poultry and rodents differ from those in humans in several ways. Very little work has been done on the embryonic development of KNJ and TMJ in large mammals. Several studies have shown that pigs are ideal animals for embryonic development research. Embryonic day 30 (E30), E35, E45, E55, E75, E90, Postnatal day 0 (P0) and Postnatal day 30 (P30) embryos/fetuses from the pigs were used for this study. The results showed that KNJ develops earlier than TMJ. Only one mesenchymal condensate of KNJ is formed on E30, while two mesenchymal condensates of TMJ are present on E35. All structures of KNJ and TMJ were formed on E45. The growth plate of KNJ begins to develop on E45 and becomes more pronounced from E55 to P30. From E75 to E90, more and more vascular-rich cartilage canals form in the cartilage regions of both joints. The cartilaginous canal of the TMJ divides the condyle into sections along the longitudinal axis of the condyle. This arrangement of cartilaginous canal was not found in the KNJ. The chondrification of KNJ precedes that of TMJ. Ossification of the knee condyle occurs gradually from the middle to the periphery, while that of the TMJ occurs gradually from the base of the mandibular condyle. In the KNJ, the ossification of the articular condyle is evident from P0 to P30, and the growth plate is completely formed on P30. In the TMJ, the cartilage layer of condyle becomes thinner from P0 to P30. There is no growth plate formation in TMJ during its entire development. There is no growth plate formation in the TMJ throughout its development. The condyle may be the developmental center of the TMJ. The chondrocytes and hypertrophic chondrocytes of the growth plate are densely arranged. The condylar chondrocytes of TMJ are scattered, while the hypertrophic chondrocytes are arranged. Embryonic development of KNJ and TMJ in pigs is an important bridge for translating the results of rodent studies to medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Lei
- Beijing Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing, PR China
- Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Xuewen Wang
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Resources, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yongfeng Li
- Department of Stomatology, Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, Beijing, PR China
| | - Huawei Liu
- Department of Stomatology, the First Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, PR China
| | - Guoqiang Yan
- Beijing Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing, PR China
- Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Jinzhu Jing
- Beijing Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing, PR China
- Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Zhen Liang
- Beijing Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing, PR China
- Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Anyi Guo
- Beijing Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing, PR China
- Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
| | - Min Hu
- Department of Stomatology, the First Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yajun Liu
- Beijing Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedics, Beijing, PR China
- Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, PR China
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Allas L, Boumédiene K, Baugé C. Epigenetic dynamic during endochondral ossification and articular cartilage development. Bone 2019; 120:523-532. [PMID: 30296494 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Within the last decade epigenetics has emerged as fundamental regulator of numerous cellular processes, including those orchestrating embryonic and fetal development. As such, epigenetic factors play especially crucial roles in endochondral ossification, the process by which bone tissue is created, as well during articular cartilage formation. In this review, we summarize the recent discoveries that characterize how DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications and non-coding RNA (e.g., miRNA and lcnRNA) epigenetically regulate endochondral ossification and chondrogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyess Allas
- Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, EA7451 BioConnecT, Caen, France
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Abstract
The joints are a diverse group of skeletal structures, and their genesis, morphogenesis, and acquisition of specialized tissues have intrigued biologists for decades. Here we review past and recent studies on important aspects of joint development, including the roles of the interzone and morphogenesis of articular cartilage. Studies have documented the requirement of interzone cells in limb joint initiation and formation of most, if not all, joint tissues. We highlight these studies and also report more detailed interzone dissection experiments in chick embryos. Articular cartilage has always received special attention owing to its complex architecture and phenotype and its importance in long-term joint function. We pay particular attention to mechanisms by which neonatal articular cartilage grows and thickens over time and eventually acquires its multi-zone structure and becomes mechanically fit in adults. These and other studies are placed in the context of evolutionary biology, specifically regarding the dramatic changes in limb joint organization during transition from aquatic to land life. We describe previous studies, and include new data, on the knee joints of aquatic axolotls that unlike those in higher vertebrates, are not cavitated, are filled with rigid fibrous tissues and resemble amphiarthroses. We show that when axolotls metamorph to life on land, their intra-knee fibrous tissue becomes sparse and seemingly more flexible and the articular cartilage becomes distinct and acquires a tidemark. In sum, there have been considerable advances toward a better understanding of limb joint development, biological responsiveness, and evolutionary influences, though much remains unclear. Future progress in these fields should also lead to creation of new developmental biology-based tools to repair and regenerate joint tissues in acute and chronic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Rux
- Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| | - Rebekah S Decker
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Eiki Koyama
- Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Maurizio Pacifici
- Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Nagao M, Hamilton JL, Kc R, Berendsen AD, Duan X, Cheong CW, Li X, Im HJ, Olsen BR. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor in Cartilage Development and Osteoarthritis. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13027. [PMID: 29026147 PMCID: PMC5638804 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13417-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Genome wide studies indicate that vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF) is associated with osteoarthritis (OA), and increased VEGF expression correlates with increased disease severity. VEGF is also a chondrocyte survival factor during development and essential for bone formation, skeletal growth and postnatal homeostasis. This raises questions of how the important embryonic and postnatal functions of VEGF can be reconciled with an apparently destructive role in OA. Addressing these questions, we find that VEGF acts as a survival factor in growth plate chondrocytes during development but only up until a few weeks after birth in mice. It is also required for postnatal differentiation of articular chondrocytes and the timely ossification of bones in joint regions. In surgically induced knee OA in mice, a model of post-traumatic OA in humans, increased expression of VEGF is associated with catabolic processes in chondrocytes and synovial cells. Conditional knock-down of Vegf attenuates induced OA. Intra-articular anti-VEGF antibodies suppress OA progression, reduce levels of phosphorylated VEGFR2 in articular chondrocytes and synovial cells and reduce levels of phosphorylated VEGFR1 in dorsal root ganglia. Finally, oral administration of the VEGFR2 kinase inhibitor Vandetanib attenuates OA progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Nagao
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, 188 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Juntendo University School of Medicine 2-1-1 Hongo Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan.
| | - John L Hamilton
- Department of Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 W, Harrison Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Ranjan Kc
- Department of Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 W, Harrison Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Agnes D Berendsen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, 188 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Xuchen Duan
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, 188 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Chan Wook Cheong
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, 188 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 W, Harrison Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Hee-Jeong Im
- Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs (VA) Medical Center, 820S, Damen Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.
| | - Bjorn R Olsen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, 188 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Decker RS, Um HB, Dyment NA, Cottingham N, Usami Y, Enomoto-Iwamoto M, Kronenberg MS, Maye P, Rowe DW, Koyama E, Pacifici M. Cell origin, volume and arrangement are drivers of articular cartilage formation, morphogenesis and response to injury in mouse limbs. Dev Biol 2017; 426:56-68. [PMID: 28438606 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Limb synovial joints are composed of distinct tissues, but it is unclear which progenitors produce those tissues and how articular cartilage acquires its functional postnatal organization characterized by chondrocyte columns, zone-specific cell volumes and anisotropic matrix. Using novel Gdf5CreERT2 (Gdf5-CE), Prg4-CE and Dkk3-CE mice mated to R26-Confetti or single-color reporters, we found that knee joint progenitors produced small non-migratory progenies and distinct local tissues over prenatal and postnatal time. Stereological imaging and quantification indicated that the columns present in juvenile-adult tibial articular cartilage consisted of non-daughter, partially overlapping lineage cells, likely reflecting cell rearrangement and stacking. Zone-specific increases in cell volume were major drivers of tissue thickening, while cell proliferation or death played minor roles. Second harmonic generation with 2-photon microscopy showed that the collagen matrix went from being isotropic and scattered at young stages to being anisotropic and aligned along the cell stacks in adults. Progenitor tracing at prenatal or juvenile stages showed that joint injury provoked a massive and rapid increase in synovial Prg4+ and CD44+/P75+ cells some of which filling the injury site, while neighboring chondrocytes appeared unresponsive. Our data indicate that local cell populations produce distinct joint tissues and that articular cartilage growth and zonal organization are mainly brought about by cell volume expansion and topographical cell rearrangement. Synovial Prg4+ lineage progenitors are exquisitely responsive to acute injury and may represent pioneers in joint tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah S Decker
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States.
| | - Hyo-Bin Um
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Nathaniel A Dyment
- Department of Reconstructive Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030, United States
| | - Naiga Cottingham
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Yu Usami
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Motomi Enomoto-Iwamoto
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Mark S Kronenberg
- Department of Reconstructive Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030, United States
| | - Peter Maye
- Department of Reconstructive Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030, United States
| | - David W Rowe
- Department of Reconstructive Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030, United States
| | - Eiki Koyama
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - Maurizio Pacifici
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States.
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Cui Y, Wang H, Yu M, Xu T, Li X, Li L. Differentiation Plasticity of Human Fetal Articular Chondrocytes. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2016; 135:61-7. [PMID: 16815184 DOI: 10.1016/j.otohns.2006.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2005] [Accepted: 02/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To test chondrogenic differentiation potential, we examined the differentiation plasticity of isolated human fetal articular chondrocytes (HFACs). STUDY AND DESIGN SETTING: Culture-expanded human fetal articular chondrocytes (HFACs) were analyzed for chondrogenic, adipogenic, osteogenic capacity and neural differentiation ability in defined in vitro culture systems. RESULTS: The different assays demonstrated that culture-expanded HFACs have potential to form cartilage in pellet mass culture, to form adipose cells, osteogenic cells, and neural cells in monolayer culture. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that within human fetal articular cartilages there are MSC-like cells that exhibit differentiation plasticity that is comparable with that of BM-MSCs and they may be a new kind of seeding cells for head and neck cartilage reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Cui
- Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing City 100083, China
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Abstract
Articular cartilage has obvious and fundamental roles in joint function and body movement. Much is known about its organization, extracellular matrix, and phenotypic properties of its cells, but less is known about its developmental biology. Incipient articular cartilage in late embryos and neonates is a thin tissue with scanty matrix and small cells, while adult tissue is thick and zonal and contains large cells and abundant matrix. What remains unclear is not only how incipient articular cartilage forms, but how it then grows and matures into a functional, complex, and multifaceted structure. This review focuses on recent and exciting discoveries on the developmental biology and growth of articular cartilage, frames them within the context of classic studies, and points to lingering questions and research goals. Advances in this research area will have significant relevance to basic science, and also considerable translational value to design superior cartilage repair and regeneration strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah S Decker
- Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - Eiki Koyama
- Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Maurizio Pacifici
- Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
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Jahan E, Matsumoto A, Rafiq AM, Hashimoto R, Inoue T, Udagawa J, Sekine J, Otani H. Fetal jaw movement affects Ihh signaling in mandibular condylar cartilage development: the possible role of Ihh as mechanotransduction mediator. Arch Oral Biol 2014; 59:1108-18. [PMID: 25033382 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2014.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Jaw movement is an important mechanical factor for prenatal development of the condylar cartilage of mandible. Fetal jaw movement restriction has been shown to cause deformity of the mandibular condyle. We hypothesized that this treatment affects the expression of mechanosensitive molecules, namely Indian hedgehog (Ihh) and Parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP) in the condyle. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS We restrained jaw movement by suturing the jaw of E15.5 mouse embryos and allowed them to develop until E18.5 using exo utero system, and analyzed them by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization methods. RESULTS Morphological, histomorphometric and immunohistochemical study showed that the mandibular condylar cartilage was reduced and deformed, the volume and total cell numbers in the condylar cartilage were also reduced, and number and/or distribution of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine-positive cells, Ihh-positive cells in the mesenchymal and pre-hypertrophic zones were significantly and correspondingly decreased in the sutured group. Using in situ hybridization, reduced expression of Ihh, PTHrP and their related receptors were observed in condylar cartilage of the sutured embryos. CONCLUSIONS Our results revealed that the altered mechanical stress induced by prenatal jaw movement restriction decreased proliferating cells, the amount of cartilage, and altered expression of the Ihh and PTHrP, suggesting that Ihh act as mechanotransduction mediators in the development of mandibular condylar cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esrat Jahan
- Department of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Akihiro Matsumoto
- Department of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Ashiq Mahmood Rafiq
- Department of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Ryuju Hashimoto
- Department of Clinical Nursing, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Takayuki Inoue
- Department of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Jun Udagawa
- Division of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Anatomy, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta Tsukinowa-cho, Otsu, Shiga 520-2192, Japan
| | - Joji Sekine
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Hiroki Otani
- Department of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
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Lorda-Diez CI, Montero JA, Rodriguez-Leon J, Garcia-Porrero JA, Hurle JM. Expression and functional study of extracellular BMP antagonists during the morphogenesis of the digits and their associated connective tissues. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60423. [PMID: 23573253 PMCID: PMC3616094 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the role of BMP signaling in the diversification of the embryonic limb mesodermal progenitors destined to form cartilage, joints, and tendons. Given the importance of extracellular BMP modulators in in vivo systems, we performed a systematic search of those expressed in the developing autopod during the formation of the digits. Here, we monitored the expression of extracellular BMP modulators including: Noggin, Chordin, Chordin-like 1, Chordin-like 2, Twisted gastrulation, Dan, BMPER, Sost, Sostdc1, Follistatin, Follistatin-like 1, Follistatin-like 5 and Tolloid. These factors show differential expression domains in cartilage, joints and tendons. Furthermore, they are induced in specific temporal patterns during the formation of an ectopic extra digit, preceding the appearance of changes that are identifiable by conventional histology. The analysis of gene regulation, cell proliferation and cell death that are induced by these factors in high density cultures of digit progenitors provides evidence of functional specialization in the control of mesodermal differentiation but not in cell proliferation or apoptosis. We further show that the expression of these factors is differentially controlled by the distinct signaling pathways acting in the developing limb at the stages covered by this study. In addition, our results provide evidence suggesting that TWISTED GASTRULATION cooperates with CHORDINS, BMPER, and NOGGIN in the establishment of tendons or cartilage in a fashion that is dependent on the presence or absence of TOLLOID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos I. Lorda-Diez
- Departamento de Anatomía y Biología Celular and IFIMAV, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | - Juan A. Montero
- Departamento de Anatomía y Biología Celular and IFIMAV, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | | | - Juan A. Garcia-Porrero
- Departamento de Anatomía y Biología Celular and IFIMAV, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | - Juan M. Hurle
- Departamento de Anatomía y Biología Celular and IFIMAV, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Khan WS, Hardingham TE. Cartilage tissue engineering approaches applicable in orthopaedic surgery: the past, the present, and the future. J Stem Cells 2012; 7:97-104. [PMID: 23550348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Tissue is frequently damaged or lost in injury and disease. There has been an increasing interest in stem cell applications and tissue engineering approaches in surgical practice to deal with damaged or lost tissue. Although there have been developments in almost all surgical disciplines, the greatest advances are being made in orthopaedics, especially in cartilage repair. This is due to many factors including the familiarity with bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells and cartilage being a relatively simpler tissue to engineer. Unfortunately significant hurdles remain to be overcome in many areas before tissue engineering becomes more routinely used in clinical practice. In this paper we discuss the structure, function and embryology of cartilage and osteoarthritis. This is followed by a review of current treatment strategies for the repair of cartilage and the use of tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wasim S Khan
- University College London Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, London HA7 4LP, UK.
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Mahmoodian R, Leasure J, Philip P, Pleshko N, Capaldi F, Siegler S. Changes in mechanics and composition of human talar cartilage anlagen during fetal development. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2011; 19:1199-209. [PMID: 21843650 PMCID: PMC3217246 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2011.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Fetal cartilage anlage provides a framework for endochondral ossification and organization into articular cartilage. We previously reported differences between mechanical properties of talar cartilage anlagen and adult articular cartilage. However, the underlying development-associated changes remain to be established. Delineation of the normal evolvement of mechanical properties and its associated compositional basis provides insight into the natural mechanisms of cartilage maturation. Our goal was to address this issue. MATERIALS AND METHODS Human fetal cartilage anlagen were harvested from the tali of normal stillborn fetuses from 20 to 36 weeks of gestational age. Data obtained from stress relaxation experiments conducted under confined and unconfined compression configurations were processed to derive the compressive mechanical properties. The compressive mechanical properties were extracted from a linear fit to the equilibrium response in unconfined compression, and by using the nonlinear biphasic theory to fit to the experimental data from the confined compression experiment, both in stress-relaxation. The molecular composition was obtained using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and spatial maps of tissue contents per dry weight were created using FTIR imaging. Correlative and regression analyses were performed to identify relationships between the mechanical properties and age, compositional properties and age, and mechanical vs compositional parameters. RESULTS All of the compositional quantities and the mechanical properties excluding the Poisson's ratio changed with maturation. Stiffness increased by a factor of ∼2.5 and permeability decreased by 20% over the period studied. Collagen content and degree of collagen integrity increased with age by ∼3-fold, while the proteoglycan content decreased by 18%. Significant relations were found between the mechanical and compositional properties. CONCLUSION The mechanics of fetal talar cartilage is related to its composition, where the collagen and proteoglycan network play a prominent role. An understanding of the mechanisms of early cartilage maturation could provide a framework to guide tissue-engineering strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mahmoodian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, MA, United States
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Hou HF, Li JP, Ding GY, Ye WJ, Jiao P, Li QW. [The cytotoxic effect and injury mechanism of deoxynivalenol on articular chondrocytes in human embryo]. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2011; 45:629-632. [PMID: 22041568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study was to explore the cytotoxic effect and the related injury mechanism of deoxynivalenol (DON) on articular chondrocytes in human embryo. METHODS Articular cartilage cells were isolated from knees of human embryo and cultured in DMEM/F12 medium. The cells of the 4th generation were divided into five groups and incubated with varying concentrations of DON as the followings: control group and group with DON of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 1.0 µg/ml. The effects of DON were observed 72 hours after incubation. Cell apoptosis was assayed by flow cytometry (FCM) with Annexin V-FITC/PI staining; MMP-13 and PGE2 were detected by ELISA kits; NO was measured by Griess assay with spectrophotometer. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and collagen II in cells were detected by FCM. The expression levels of iNOS, mRNA and collagen II mRNA were measured with RT-PCR. RESULTS The rates of cell apoptosis in DON groups were 6.78% - 19.05%, which were significantly higher than that in control (1.20%, F = 174.761, P < 0.05). The levels of NO in DON groups were 20.8 - 40.7 µmol/L, which were significantly higher than that in control (10.2 µmol/L, F = 91.966, P < 0.05). The levels of MMP-13 in DON groups were 0.25 - 0.56 µmol/L, which were significantly higher than that in control (0 µmol/L, F = 78.420, P < 0.05). The levels of PGE2 in DON groups were 3.2-20.6 µmol/L, which were significantly higher than that in control (11.6 µmol/L, F = 276.453, P < 0.05). The proportions of cells with positive iNOS in DON groups were 14.8% - 56.8% which were significantly higher than that in controls (7.1%, F = 214.614, P < 0.05). The proportions of cells with positive collagen II in groups with DON of 0.4 µg/ml and 1.0 µg/ml were 56.7% and 52.7%, which were significantly lower than that in control (62.2%, F = 5.134, P < 0.05). The relative absorbance values of iNOS mRNA in DON groups were 1.07 - 1.33, which were significantly higher than that in control (0.62, F = 8.358, P < 0.05). The levels of collagen II mRNA in groups with DON of 0.4 µg/ml and 1.0 µg/ml were 0.83 and 0.82, which were significantly lower than that in control (1.14, F = 7.887, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION DON could promote anabolism of NO in articular cartilage cells by which up-regulated the expression of PGE2 and MMP-13, which both promoted resolution of articular cartilage matrix such as collagen II. DON induced apoptosis in articular cartilage cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Feng Hou
- Institute of Epidemiology, Taishan Medical College, Taian 271000, China
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13
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Ohta Y, Iwamoto M. [Joint morphogenesis and development of permanent articular cartilage]. Clin Calcium 2011; 21:813-819. [PMID: 21628794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
During limb skeletogenesis progenitor mesenchymal cells aggregate at specific times and sites to form continuous precartilaginous condensations. With time the condensations undergo chondrogenesis and give rise to cartilaginous anlagen that exhibit incipient synovial joints at each end. A multitude of factors regulates subdivision into discrete skeletal elements and the formation, organization, morphogenesis and structure of the joints. This review summarizes recent advance of joint morphogenesis and actions of key players of joint and articular cartilage formation. In addition, we would like to discuss possible direction to translate basic research findings towards treatment of joint diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Ohta
- Department of Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, PA, USA
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Vanderman KS, Tremblay M, Zhu W, Shimojo M, Mienaltowski MJ, Coleman SJ, MacLeod JN. Brother of CDO (BOC) expression in equine articular cartilage. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2011; 19:435-8. [PMID: 21262369 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2011.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2010] [Revised: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/16/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Brother of CDO (BOC) is a cell surface receptor that derives its name from the structurally related protein, cell adhesion molecule-related/down-regulated by oncogenes (CDO, sometimes CDON). High levels of BOC mRNA and protein expression have been described in embryonic tissues with active cell proliferation and ongoing cellular differentiation(1,2). A microarray-based screen of RNA isolated from 11 different adult equine tissues unexpectedly identified BOC as having an expression pattern restricted to articular cartilage. The objective of this study was to further investigate BOC expression in adult articular cartilage relative to other tissues. Both RT-qPCR and mRNA sequencing confirmed the microarray data. Steady state BOC mRNA levels in articular cartilage were substantially higher than in the other adult tissues tested, neonatal tendon, placenta, and whole embryo. The expression of BOC displayed a pattern of tissue specificity comparable to well established cartilage matrix protein biomarkers. BOC mRNA levels in articular cartilage increased with age, but were rapidly down-regulated when chondrocytes were enzymatically isolated from the cartilage matrix and expanded in monolayer culture. Relative expression patterns of CDO were broadly similar, but displayed lower fold change differences. A functional role in articular cartilage that involves Hedgehog signaling is suggested by the known binding affinity of BOC for all three Hedgehog ligands. These data also extend BOC and CDO biology to a post-mitotic and highly differentiated cell type within a mature tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Vanderman
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
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Cisneros Gimeno AI, Whyte Orozco JR, Obón Nogues JA, Yus Gotor C, Crovetto De La Torre MA, Whyte Orozco A. Contribution to morphological knowledge of the development of the human incudo-mallear joint. Acta Otolaryngol 2009; 129:1380-7. [PMID: 19922085 DOI: 10.3109/00016480902849435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
CONCLUSION At the time of birth, the incudo-mallear joint is completely developed. OBJECTIVE. To study the development of the incudo-mallear joint in human embryos and fetuses. MATERIALS AND METHODS. In all, 46 temporal bones with ages between 9 mm and newborns were studied. The preparations were cut in a series and dyed using Martins' trichrome technique. RESULTS. The incudo-mallear joint acquires the characteristics of a saddle joint at 10 weeks of development. The cartilage that covers the articular surfaces is formed by different strata that develop successively: the superficial stratum at 14 weeks, the transitional between 15 and 19 weeks, and the radial from 20 weeks. The subchondral bone develops between weeks 25 and 28 by the mechanisms of apposition and extension of the periosteal and endosteal bones, but it is not until week 30 that it completely covers the articular surfaces, consisting of bone fascicles whereby the lines of force will be transmitted. The articular capsule is formed as from the inter-zone. The surface zone develops the capsular ligament, and the internal surface develops the synovial membrane. Even though it is not consistent, the primordium of the meniscus is seen at 18 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana I Cisneros Gimeno
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, School of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
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Burdan F, Szumiło J, Dworzański W, Szumiło M, Podlodowska J, Dyndor K, Madej B, Dworzański J, Klepacz R. Immunoexpression of constitutive and inducible cyclooxygenase isoforms in distinguishing and accessory structures of synovial joints in rat foetuses. Folia Morphol (Warsz) 2009; 68:59-64. [PMID: 19449290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Joint formation is a developmental process regulated by various factors including bone morphogenetic proteins, transforming and growth factors, etc. Recently, a high expression of cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms in the foetal cartilaginous elements was also revealed. On the other hand, various joint and skeletal abnormalities were seen in laboratory animal and human offspring, exposed in utero to several COX inhibitors. Immunoexpression of constitutive (COX-1) and inducible (COX-2) cyclooxygenase isoforms was evaluated in various articular structures of untreated and unfamiliar 21-day-old male rat foetuses. Both COX isoforms were detected in the articular cartilage and joint capsule, as well as in the intra-articular disc of the temporomandibular joint and meniscus of the knee joint. COX-1 immunostaining was revealed in the anterior and posterior cruciate ligament of the knee joint and the labrum of the hip and shoulder, whereas COX-2 immunoreactivity in those structures was not found. It could be concluded that both constitutive and inducible COX isoforms are physiologically expressed in various structures of synovial joints in rat foetuses at the end of prenatal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Burdan
- Experimental Teratology Unit of the Human Anatomy Department, Medical University of Lublin, Poland.
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Abstract
Mechanical characterization of human cartilage anlagen is required to effectively model congenital musculoskeletal deformities. Such modeling can effectively explore the effect of treatment procedures and potentially suggest enhanced treatment methods. Using serial MRI, we have noted shape changes of the cartilaginous hindfoot anlagen in patients with clubfoot, suggesting they are soft and deformable. We therefore determined the stress relaxation behavior of cartilage plugs obtained from third-trimester stillborn fetuses in unconfined and confined compression geometries. The material parameters determined were the aggregate modulus H(A) = 0.15 +/- 0.07 MPa, Poisson's ratio nu = 0.4 +/- 0.06, Young's modulus E(s) = 0.06 +/- 0.03 MPa, and permeability coefficients k(0) = 2.01 +/- 0.8 x 10(-14) m(4) N(-1) s(-1) and M = 4.6 +/- 1.0. As compared with adult articular cartilage, stiffness was an order of magnitude lower than the values reported in the literature, suggesting the relative softness of the tissue, and the permeability was an order of magnitude higher, indicating relative ease of flow in the tissue. Poisson's ratio also was close to the higher end of the range reported in previous studies. Such material is expected to deform and relax to larger extents. These findings are consistent with the deformability of the cartilage anlagen during manipulation and casting for treatment of clubfoot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roza Mahmoodian
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Jeremi Leasure
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Hemanth Gadikota
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Franco Capaldi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Sorin Siegler
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
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Lecocq M, Girard CA, Fogarty U, Beauchamp G, Richard H, Laverty S. Cartilage matrix changes in the developing epiphysis: early events on the pathway to equine osteochondrosis? Equine Vet J 2008; 40:442-54. [PMID: 18487100 DOI: 10.2746/042516408x297453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY The earliest osteochondrosis (OC) microscopic lesion reported in the literature was present in the femorotibial joint of a 2-day-old foal suggesting that OC lesions and factors initiating them may arise prior to birth. OBJECTIVE To examine the developing equine epiphysis to detect histological changes that could be precursors to OC lesions. METHODS Osteochondral samples from 21 equine fetuses and 13 foals were harvested from selected sites in the scapulohumeral, humeroradial, metacarpophalangeal, femoropatellar, femorotibial, tarsocrural and metatarsophalangeal joints. Sections were stained with safranin O and picrosiruis red to assess cartilage changes and structural arrangement of the collagen matrix. RESULTS Extracellular matrix changes observed included perivascular areas of paleness of the proteoglycan matrix associated with hypocellularity and, sometimes, necrotic chondrocytes. These changes were most abundant in the youngest fetuses and in the femoropatellar/femorotibial (FP/FT) joints. Indentations of the ossification front were also observed in most specimens, but, most frequently, in scapulohumeral and FP/FT joints. A cartilage canal was almost always present in these indentations. The vascular density of the cartilage was higher in the youngest fetuses. In these fetuses, the most vascularised joints were the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints but their cartilage canals regressed quickly. After birth, the most vascularised cartilage was present in the FP/FT joint. Articular cartilage differentiated into 4 zones early in fetal life and the epiphyseal cartilage also had a distinct zonal cartilage structure. A striking difference was observed in the collagen structure at the junction of the proliferative and hypertrophic zones where OCD lesions occur. CONCLUSION Matrix and ossification front changes were frequently observed and significantly associated with cartilage canals suggesting that they may be physiological changes associated with matrix remodelling and development. The collagen structure was variable through the growing epiphysis and a differential in biomechanical properties at focal sites may predispose them to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lecocq
- Département de sciences cliniques, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Shimizu T, Nakano K, Tsujigiwa H, Nagatsuka H, Watanabe T, Okafuji N, Kurihara S, Hasegawa H, Nagai N, Kawakami T. Notch signaling in mandibular condylar cartilage development. Eur J Med Res 2007; 12:515-519. [PMID: 18024259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression pattern of Notch signaling in mandibular condylar cartilage, as a type of secondary cartilage. METHODS Mandibular condyle of ddY mice were fixed from embryonic day 14 (E14) through just after birth (equivalent to E19). Samples were cut into 4 mum serial sections through the central area of the mandibular condyle at the sagittal plane. Serial sections were examined using histological, immunohistochemical (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH) techniques. RESULTS At E14, there were no developmental features of mandibular condyle. At the distal upper portion of developmental mandibular bone, mesenchymal cell proliferation and condensation without metacholomatic reaction to toluidine blue (TB) were seen. At E15, mandibular condylar cartilage was clearly evident, as TB metacholomasia. In IHC specimens at E14, expression of Notch1 intracellular domain (NICD) was observed in the nuclei of coagulating mesenchymal cells. After E15, NICD appeared in the nuclei and the cytoplasms of cells. In ISH examination at E14, expressions of Notch1 mRNA appeared in cytoplasm of proliferating chondrocytes. From E15 to E19, Notch1 mRNA was detected throughout almost all cytoplasm in all layers. CONCLUSION These IHC and ISH results suggest that Notch signaling plays an essential role for mandibular condylar cartilage morphogenesis and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takako Shimizu
- Hard Tissue Pathology Unit, Matsumoto Dental University Institute for Oral Science, 1780 Hirooka-Gobara, Shiojiri, 399-0781 Japan.
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Abstract
Material available for research into osteochondrosis (OC) in humans tends to represent chronic lesions. Comparative studies of early lesions in young animals are, therefore, important in clarifying the pathogenesis of OC in humans. Recent studies in pigs provide strong evidence that lesions of articular OC are associated with a focal failure in the cartilage canal vascular supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage (articular-epiphyseal cartilage complex excluding the articular cartilage). The purpose of the present study was to examine histological sections from a specific predilection site for articular OC in the distal tibia of a large number of young foals to determine if the same is true in horses. Material from the distal tibiae of 100 foals aged from 191 days of gestation to 153 days old was collected from routine submissions of fetuses and foals for post mortem examination. The tibiae were band-sawed into slabs, and selected slabs were processed for histology, stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and examined using light microscopy. Early subclinical developmental stages of OC were found in the most common site for clinical OC lesions of horses in nine of 100 foals aged 12 to 122 days old. All lesions contained areas of chondrocyte necrosis that were associated with cartilage canal necrosis in five of nine foals. Five of these foals also had focal disruption of enchondral ossification at the chondro-osseous junction in the same site. Early lesions purported to play a role in the initial stages of articular OC in the distal tibia of horses were characterized by chondrocyte necrosis and likely occurred secondary to a failure of cartilage canal vascular supply to epiphyseal growth cartilage. The similarities in appearance between early lesions of piglets and foals suggest that information gained in one species may be transferable to others, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Olstad
- The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Section for Equine Medicine and Surgery, Post-box 8146 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway.
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Min HJ, Lee MJ, Kim JY, Cho SW, Park HD, Lee SI, Kim HJ, Jung HS. Alteration of BMP-4 and Runx2 expression patterns in mouse temporomandibular joint after ovariectomy. Oral Dis 2007; 13:220-7. [PMID: 17305626 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2006.01270.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Temporomandibular disorder (TMD) includes a number of clinical conditions involving the masticatory musculature or the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and associated structures. Previous studies have shown the presence of high-affinity estrogen receptors in the TMJ articular cartilage. The aim of this study was to evaluate the developmental changes in mouse TMJ under estrogen deficiency. MATERIALS AND METHODS Four-month-old ovariectomized mice were killed after certain weeks. We examined the significant alterations of the expression patterns of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-4, Runx2, and bone sialoprotein (BSP) after ovariectomy. RESULTS In the control group, BMP-4, Runx2, and BSP expressions showed no definite difference at any stage. In the ovariectomy group, the intensity of BMP-4 and Runx2 expression increased after ovariectomy. BSP immunoreactivity, however, increased slightly at 2 weeks but then decreased gradually. CONCLUSIONS Estrogen plays important roles in the metabolism and maintenance of TMJ via regulations of signaling molecules such as BMP-4, Runx2, and BSP. Our results suggest that estrogen deficiency is a candidate cause of TMD. This study revealed further osteogenetic properties of estrogen that may be useful in the clinical treatment and prevention of TMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- H-J Min
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, Yonsei Center of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 134 Shinchon-Dong, Seodaemoon-Gu, Seoul 120-752, Korea
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Iwamoto M, Tamamura Y, Koyama E, Komori T, Takeshita N, Williams JA, Nakamura T, Enomoto-Iwamoto M, Pacifici M. Transcription factor ERG and joint and articular cartilage formation during mouse limb and spine skeletogenesis. Dev Biol 2007; 305:40-51. [PMID: 17336282 PMCID: PMC2104487 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2006] [Revised: 01/26/2007] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Articular cartilage and synovial joints are critical for skeletal function, but the mechanisms regulating their development are largely unknown. In previous studies we found that the ets transcription factor ERG and its alternatively-spliced variant C-1-1 have roles in joint formation in chick. Here, we extended our studies to mouse. We found that ERG is also expressed in developing mouse limb joints. To test regulation of ERG expression, beads coated with the joint master regulator protein GDF-5 were implanted close to incipient joints in mouse limb explants; this led to rapid and strong ectopic ERG expression. We cloned and characterized several mammalian ERG variants and expressed a human C-1-1 counterpart (hERG3Delta81) throughout the cartilaginous skeleton of transgenic mice, using Col2a1 gene promoter/enhancer sequences. The skeletal phenotype was severe and neonatal lethal, and the transgenic mice were smaller than wild type littermates and their skeletons were largely cartilaginous. Limb long bone anlagen were entirely composed of chondrocytes actively expressing collagen IX and aggrecan as well as articular markers such as tenascin-C. Typical growth plates were absent and there was very low expression of maturation and hypertrophy markers, including Indian hedgehog, collagen X and MMP-13. The results suggest that ERG is part of molecular mechanisms leading chondrocytes into a permanent developmental path and become joint forming cells, and may do so by acting downstream of GDF-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Iwamoto
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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Hyde G, Dover S, Aszodi A, Wallis GA, Boot-Handford RP. Lineage tracing using matrilin-1 gene expression reveals that articular chondrocytes exist as the joint interzone forms. Dev Biol 2007; 304:825-33. [PMID: 17313942 PMCID: PMC2795868 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2006] [Revised: 12/14/2006] [Accepted: 01/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a mouse in which the Cre recombinase gene has been targeted to exon 1 of the matrilin-1 gene (Matn1) to investigate the origins of articular chondrocytes and the development of the knee joint. Analysis of joints from offspring of Matn1-Cre/R26R crosses demonstrated that articular chondrocytes are derived from cells that have never expressed matrilin-1 whereas the remainder of the chondrocytes in the cartilage anlagen expresses matrilin-1. A band of chondrocytes adjacent to the developing interzone in the E13.5 day knee joint became apparent because these chondrocytes did not turn on expression of matrilin-1 in contrast to the other chondrocytes of the anlagen. The chondrocytes of the presumptive articular surface therefore appear to arise directly from a subpopulation of early chondrocytes that do not activate matrilin-1 expression rather than by redifferentiation from the flattened cells of the interzone. In addition, lineage tracing using both Matn1-Cre/R26R and Col2a1-Cre/R26R lines indicated that non-cartilaginous structures in the knee such as cruciate ligament, synovium and some blood vessels are formed by cells derived from the early chondrocytes of the anlagen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Hyde
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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Klein TJ, Chaudhry M, Bae WC, Sah RL. Depth-dependent biomechanical and biochemical properties of fetal, newborn, and tissue-engineered articular cartilage. J Biomech 2007; 40:182-90. [PMID: 16387310 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2005] [Accepted: 10/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Adult articular cartilage has depth-dependent mechanical and biochemical properties which contribute to zone-specific functions. The compressive moduli of immature cartilage and tissue-engineered cartilage are known to be lower than those of adult cartilage. The objective of this study was to determine if such tissues exhibit depth-dependent compressive properties, and how these depth-varying properties were correlated with cell and matrix composition of the tissue. The compressive moduli of fetal and newborn bovine articular cartilage increased with depth (p<0.05) by a factor of 4-5 from the top 0.1 mm (28+/-13 kPa, 141+/-10 kPa, respectively) to 1 mm deep into the tissue. Likewise, the glycosaminoglycan and collagen content increased with depth (both p<0.001), and correlated with the modulus (both p<0.01). In contrast, tissue-engineered cartilage formed by either layering or mixing cells from the superficial and middle zone of articular cartilage exhibited similarly soft regions at both construct surfaces, as exemplified by large equilibrium strains. The properties of immature cartilage may provide a template for developing tissue-engineered cartilage which aims to repair cartilage defects by recapitulating the natural development and growth processes. These results suggest that while depth-dependent properties may be important to engineer into cartilage constructs, issues other than cell heterogeneity must be addressed to generate such tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis J Klein
- Department of Bioengineering, 9500 Gilman Dr., Mail Code 0412, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, USA
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Jadin KD, Bae WC, Schumacher BL, Sah RL. Three-dimensional (3-D) imaging of chondrocytes in articular cartilage: growth-associated changes in cell organization. Biomaterials 2006; 28:230-9. [PMID: 16999994 PMCID: PMC2464614 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2006] [Accepted: 08/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3-D) imaging and analysis techniques can be used to assess the organization of cells in biological tissues, providing key insights into the role of cell arrangement in growth, homeostasis, and degeneration. The objective of the present study was to use such methods to assess the growth-related changes in cell organization of articular cartilage from different sites in the bovine knee. Three-dimensional images of fetal, calf, and adult cartilage were obtained and processed to identify cell nuclei. The density of cells was lower with growth and with increasing depth from the articular surface. The cell organization, assessed by the angle to the nearest neighboring cell, also varied with growth, and reflected the classical organization of cells in adult tissue, with neighboring cells arranged horizontally in the superficial zone (average angle of 20 degrees) and vertically in the deep zone (60 degrees). In all other regions and growth stages of cartilage, the angle was approximately 32 degrees, indicative of an isotropic organization. On the contrary, the nearest neighbor distance did not vary significantly with growth or depth. Together, these results indicate that cartilage growth is associated with distinctive 3-D arrangements of groups of chondrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D. Jadin
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0412, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, Tel: (858) 534-0821, Fax: (858) 822-1614
| | - Won C. Bae
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0412, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, Tel: (858) 534-0821, Fax: (858) 822-1614
| | - Barbara L. Schumacher
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0412, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, Tel: (858) 534-0821, Fax: (858) 822-1614
| | - Robert L. Sah
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0412, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, Tel: (858) 534-0821, Fax: (858) 822-1614,
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Shibata S, Suda N, Suzuki S, Fukuoka H, Yamashita Y. An in situ hybridization study of Runx2, Osterix, and Sox9 at the onset of condylar cartilage formation in fetal mouse mandible. J Anat 2006; 208:169-77. [PMID: 16441561 PMCID: PMC2100199 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00525.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mandibular condylar cartilage is the principal secondary cartilage, differing from primary cartilage in its rapid differentiation from progenitor cells (preosteoblasts/skeletoblasts) to hypertrophic chondrocytes. The expression of three transcription factors related to bone and cartilage formation, namely Runx2, Osterix and Sox9, was investigated at the onset of mouse mandibular condylar cartilage formation by in situ hybridization. Messenger RNAs for these three molecules were expressed in the condylar anlage, consisting of preosteoblasts/skeletoblasts, at embryonic day (E)14. Hypertrophic chondrocytes appeared at E15 as soon as cartilage tissue appeared. Runx2 mRNA was expressed in the embryonic zone at the posterior position of the newly formed cartilage, in the bone collar and in the newly formed cartilage, but expression intensity in the newly formed cartilage was slightly weaker. Osterix mRNA was also expressed in the embryonic zone and in the bone collar, but was at markedly lower levels in the newly formed cartilage. Sox9 mRNA was continuously expressed from the embryonic zone to the newly formed cartilage. At this stage, Sox5 mRNA was expressed only in the newly formed cartilage. These results suggest that reduced expression of Osterix in combination with Sox9-Sox5 expression is important for the onset of condylar (secondary) cartilage formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunichi Shibata
- Maxillofacial Anatomy, Department of Maxillofacial Biology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Japan.
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Pacifici M, Koyama E, Shibukawa Y, Wu C, Tamamura Y, Enomoto-Iwamoto M, Iwamoto M. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of synovial joint and articular cartilage formation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1068:74-86. [PMID: 16831907 PMCID: PMC2697570 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1346.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Synovial joints and articular cartilage play crucial roles in the skeletal function, but relatively little is actually known about their embryonic development. Here we first focused on the interzone, a thin mesenchymal cell layer forming at future joint sites that is widely thought to be critical for joint and articular cartilage development. To determine interzone cell origin and fate, we microinjected the vital fluorescent dye DiI at several peri-joint sites in chick limbs and monitored the behavior and fate of labeled cells over time. Peri-joint mesenchymal cells located immediately adjacent to incipient joints migrated, became part of the interzone, and were eventually found in epiphyseal articular layer and joint capsule. Interzone cells isolated and reared in vitro expressed typical phenotypic markers, including GDF-5, Wnt-14, and CD-44, and differentiated into chondrocytes over time. To determine the molecular mechanisms of articular chondrocyte formation, we carried out additional studies on the ets transcription factor family member ERG and its alternatively spliced variant C-1-1 that we previously found to be expressed in developing avian articular chondrocytes. We cloned the human counterpart of avian C-1-1 (ERGp55Delta81) and conditionally expressed it in transgenic mice under cartilage-specific Col2 gene promotor-enhancer control. The entire transgenic mouse limb chondrocyte population exhibited an immature articular-like phenotype and a virtual lack of growth plate formation and chondrocyte maturation compared to wild-type littermate. Together, our studies reveal that peri-joint mesenchymal cells take part in interzone and articular layer formation, interzone cells can differentiate into chondrocytes, and acquisition of a permanent articular chondrocyte phenotype is aided and perhaps dictated by ets transcription factor ERG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Pacifici
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University College of Medicine, 501 Curtis Bldg. 1015, Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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Koyama E, Iwamoto M. [Mechanisms of synovial joint formation]. Clin Calcium 2006; 16:1381-1386. [PMID: 16883048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Synovial joints are comprised of relatively simple biomechanical structures including articular cartilage, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, ligaments and a fibrous capsule; they are fundamentally important for function and quality of life. Recent studies described the spatio-temporal expression patterns of signaling molecules and transcription factors in the developing synovial joints. Though few in number, the gain and/or loss of function-experiments demonstrated direct involvement of these molecules in joint formation. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of synovial joint formation in the limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiki Koyama
- Thomas Jefferson University, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Jefferson Medical College
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Affiliation(s)
- Zigang Ge
- National University of Singapore, Singapore
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30
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Abstract
The child's hip begins in intrauterine development as a condensation of mesoderm in the lower limb bud that rapidly differentiates to resemble the adult hip by eight weeks of life. The developmental instructions are transmitted through complicated cell signaling pathways. From eight weeks of development to adolescence, further growth of the hip is focused on differentiation and the establishment of the adult arterial supply. The postnatal growth of the child's hip is a product of concurrent acetabular and proximal femoral growth from their corresponding growth plates. Absence of appropriate contact between acetabulum and proximal femur yields an incongruent joint. Multiple disease processes may be understood in light of this growth process, including Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease and developmental dysplasia of the hip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Lee
- Brown Medical School, Department of Orthopaedics, Rhode Island Hospital, 593 Eddy Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA
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31
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Shibata S, Fujimori T, Yamashita Y. An in situ hybridization and histochemical study of development and postnatal changes of mouse mandibular angular cartilage compared with condylar cartilage. J Med Dent Sci 2006; 53:41-50. [PMID: 16722144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the origin and postnatal changes of mouse mandibular angular cartilage, in situ hybridization for cartilaginous marker proteins, histochemistry for alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), and bromodeoxyuridine (BrDU) analyses were performed. Chondrocytes of the mandibular angular cartilage were derived from ALP-positive progenitor cells and first detected at embryonic day (E) 15.5. Newly formed chondrocytes rapidly differentiated into hypertrophic chondrocytes and hypertrophic cell zone rapidly extended in subsequent a few days. During this period, bone sialoprotein mRNA was more widely expressed than osteopontin mRNA in cartilage. Endochondral bone formation started at E 17.5 with the resorption of the bone collar by osteoclasts. These characteristics were consistent with those of the condylar cartilage, although developmental process was 0.5-1.5 day delayed relative to the condylar cartilage. During the postnatal period, contrast to the condylar cartilage, the angular cartilage constantly decreased in volume with advancing age. Reduction of proliferating activity estimated by BrDU incorporation accounts for this phenomenon. We demonstrate new structural features of the mandibular angular cartilage that may contribute to a coming research for the secondary cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunichi Shibata
- Maxillofacial Anatomy, Department of Maxillofacial Biology, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Japan.
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Lin Y, Wang L, Zhang P, Wang X, Chen X, Jing X, Su Z. Surface modification of poly(L-lactic acid) to improve its cytocompatibility via assembly of polyelectrolytes and gelatin. Acta Biomater 2006; 2:155-64. [PMID: 16701873 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2005.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2005] [Revised: 09/27/2005] [Accepted: 10/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) surface was modified via aminolysis by poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) at high pH and subsequent electrostatic self-assembly of poly(sodium styrenesulfonate) (PSS) and PAH, and the process was monitored by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and contact angle measurement. These modified PLLAs were then used as charged substrates for further incorporation of gelatin to improve their cytocompatibility. The amphoteric nature of the gelatin was exploited and the gelatin was adsorbed to the negatively charged PLLA/PSS and positively charged PLLA/PAH at pH=3.4 and 7.4, respectively. XPS and water contact angle data indicated that the gelatin adsorption at pH=3.4 resulted in much higher surface coverage by gelatin than at pH=7.4. All the modified PLLA surfaces became more hydrophilic than the virgin PLLA. Chondrocyte culture was used to test the cell attachment, cell morphology and cell viability on the modified PLLA substrates. The results showed that the PAH and PSS modified PLLA exhibited better cytocompatibility than virgin PLLA, and the incorporation of the gelatin on these modified PLLA substrates further improved their cytocompatibility, with the PLLA/PSS substrate treated with the gelatin at pH=3.4 being the best, exceeding the chondrocyte compatibility of the tissue culture polystyrene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 5625 Renmin Street, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
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Carda C, Silvestrini G, Gomez de Ferraris ME, Peydró A, Bonucci E. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) and RANKL expression and distribution in developing human craniomandibular joint. Tissue Cell 2006; 37:247-55. [PMID: 15899507 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2005.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2004] [Revised: 02/04/2005] [Accepted: 03/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
During embryogenesis the bone tissue of craniomandibular joint (CMJ) is formed through two pathways: intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. The development process is under the control of regulatory factors. The osteoprotegerin (OPG) and the receptor activator of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB ligand are key regulators of osteoclastogenesis. The aim of this study is the localization of OPG and RANKL mRNA and protein in the foetal CMJ by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH). The main results were: OPG and RANKL mRNA and protein were co-localized in the same cell types; OPG and RANKL were specially immunolocated in osteogenic cells; immunolabeling was often seen in the nucleus and cytoplasm of otherwise negative hypertrophic chondrocytes; IHC and ISH labeling decreased from proliferative to hypertrophic chondrocytes; early osteocytes showed dual protein expression and some of the mature osteocytes were ISH-negative; periosteal osteoclasts and chondroclasts were mostly stained by IHC and variably labeled by ISH; the new bone matrix and trabecular borders showed intense immunolabeling. The co-expression of OPG and RANKL in the same bone cell types confirms their strictly coupled action in the regulation of bone metabolism in the CMJ development and their extracellular presence in the new bone matrix and trabecular borders suggests a local regulatory role.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Carda
- Department of Pathology, Medical School, University of Valencia, Av Blasco Ibañez 17, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
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Yamaki Y, Tsuchikawa K, Nagasawa T, Hiroyasu K. Embryological study of the development of the rat temporomandibular joint: highlighting the development of the glenoid fossa. Odontology 2006; 93:30-4. [PMID: 16170473 DOI: 10.1007/s10266-005-0046-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2003] [Accepted: 10/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Basic embryological findings on the development of the temporomandibular joint have yet to be elucidated sufficiently. This experiment, was undertaken to find the standard time course of the development of the temporomandibular joint in rat fetuses. Serial frontal and sagittal sections of rat fetal heads (between 13.5 and 20.5 days post-conception [p.c.]) were examined microscopically. The condyle was recognized as a mesenchymal condensation at 14.5 days p.c., while the glenoid fossa was recognized at 15.5 days p.c. The mesenchymal condensation of the condyle had differentiated into chondrocytes by 16.5 days p.c., and endochondral ossification was recognized at 17.5 days p.c. The intramembranous ossification of the glenoid fossa was already recognized by 16.5 days p.c.; this started in the posterior region and progressed anteriorly between the zygomatic arch and the squamous part of the temporal bone. Ossification of the condyle had not been completed by 20.5 days p.c., a mass of hypertrophic chondrocytes remained in the center of the condylar head. The glenoid fossa was almost completely ossified by 19.5 days p.c. A coarse region of cells, reminiscent of apoptosis, was recognized in the region of the prospective superior joint space at 17.5 days p.c., and an actual joint space had formed by 18.5 days p.c. The inferior joint space was recognized at 19.5 days p.c. as a fissural cavity, but it was much narrower than its superior counterpart. The prospective meniscus was distinguished on the condylar surface at 17.5 days p.c. by the difference in the shape of its constituent cells. The results obtained here seem to be useful for further experiments and molecular biological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Yamaki
- First Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, The Nippon Dental University School of Dentistry at Niigata, 1-8 Hamaura-cho, Niigata 951-8580, Japan
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Sawamura C, Takahashi M, McCarthy KJ, Shen Z, Fukai N, Rodriguez EK, Snyder BD. Effect of in ovo immobilization on development of chick hind-limb articular cartilage: An evaluation using micro-MRI measurement of delayed gadolinium uptake. Magn Reson Med 2006; 56:1235-41. [PMID: 17089363 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.21021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
To examine the effect of immobilization on the development of articular cartilage, we assessed glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content in the chick articular surface by delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC). Chick embryos were paralyzed by decamethonium bromide (DMB) from day 10 to either day 13 or day 16. The GAG content of the chick knee was compared with that of nonparalyzed chick embryos. Histologic analysis was unable to quantify GAG content; however, dGEMRIC demonstrated that GAG content was higher in the femoral condyles of the nonparalyzed embryos on day 13, and on day 16 the GAG content was lower in both the femoral condyles and the tibial plateaus of the nonparalyzed embryos. These results suggest that paralysis delays embryonic hind-limb development. Osteoblastic activity at the cartilage canal, as demonstrated by staining for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), was present only in the nonparalyzed chick embryos on day 16. The GAG content of the cartilage decreased when the cartilage canals began to form on day 16. The effect of immobilization on hind-limb development was indicated by the differences in the GAG content of the cartilage anlage measured by dGEMRIC in the developing knee joint of paralyzed and nonparalyzed embryonic chicks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chigusa Sawamura
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics Laboratory, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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36
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Tardieu C, Glard Y, Garron E, Boulay C, Jouve JL, Dutour O, Boetsch G, Bollini G. Relationship between formation of the femoral bicondylar angle and trochlear shape: Independence of diaphyseal and epiphyseal growth. Am J Phys Anthropol 2006; 130:491-500. [PMID: 16425192 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
During hominin evolution, an increase in the femoral bicondylar angle was the initial change that led to selection for protuberance of the lateral trochlear lip and the elliptical profile of the lateral condyle. No correlation is found during ontogeny between the degree of femoral obliquity and of the prominence of the lateral trochlear lip. Might there be a relationship with the elliptical profile of the lateral condyle? On intact femoral diaphyses of juvenile humans and great apes, we compared the anteroposterior length of the lateral and medial sides of the distal metaphysis. The two diaphyseal pillars remain equal during postnatal growth in great apes, while the growth of the lateral pillar far exceeds that of the medial pillar in humans. Increase in bicondylar angle is correlated with disproportionate anteroposterior lengthening of the lateral pillar. The increased anteroposterior length of the lateral side of the metaphysis would contribute to increasing the radius of the curvature of the lateral condyle, but not to the projection of the lateral trochlear lip. The similar neonatal and adult femoro-patellar joint shape in humans prompted an assessment of the similarity during growth of the entire neonatal and adult epiphyses. We showed that the entire epiphysis undergoes drastic changes in proportions during postnatal growth. Finally, we emphasize the need to distinguish the cartilaginous phenotype and the ossified phenotype of the distal femoral epiphysis (and of any epiphysis) during postnatal growth. This crucial distinction applies to most postcranial bones, for they almost all develop following the process of endochondral ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tardieu
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Adaptations et Evolution des Systèmes Ostéomusculaires, MNHN, 75005 Paris, France.
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37
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Kawakami T, Shimizu M, Shimizu T. Immunohistochemical characteristics of developing mandibular angle in fetal mice. Eur J Med Res 2005; 10:547-8. [PMID: 16356873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mouse mandibular angle development started as a coagulation of mesemchymal cells on the 15(th) fetal day. On the 16(th )fetal day, cells of the central portion of the cell coagulation showed metachromasia to toluidine blue, and type 2 collagen positive chondrocytes were immunohistochemically detected. After the 17(th) fetal day, cartilaginous osteogenesis occurred with invasion of capillaries. At the same stage, membranous (perichondral) ossification occurred in the periphery of the chondrocyte mass. These proliferating chondrocytes showed positive reactions to type 2 collagen, type 1 collagen and osteopontin. These results suggest that the characteristics of mandibular angular cartilage are slightly different from those of normal physiological articular cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Kawakami
- Hard Tissue Pathology Unit, Matsumoto Dental University Graduate School of Oral Medicine, Shiojiri, Japan.
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38
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Pacifici M, Koyama E, Iwamoto M. Mechanisms of synovial joint and articular cartilage formation: recent advances, but many lingering mysteries. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 75:237-48. [PMID: 16187328 DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.20050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Synovial joints are elegant, critically important, and deceptively simple biomechanical structures. They are comprised of articular cartilage that covers each end of the opposing skeletal elements, synovial fluid that lubricates and nourishes the tissues, ligaments that hold the skeletal elements in check, and a fibrous capsule that insulates the joints from surrounding tissues. Joints also exhibit an exquisite arrays of shapes and sizes, best exemplified by the nearly spherical convex femoral head articulating into a nearly spherical concave hip acetabulum, or a phalangeal joint with two condyles on the distal side articulating in reciprocally-shaped sockets on the opposing proximal side. Though few in number, joint tissues are highly specialized in structure and function. This is illustrated by articular cartilage with its unique extracellular matrix, unique biomechanical resilience, its largely avascular nature, and its ability to persist through life with minimal turnover of its cells and components. The fact that interest in synovial joints has remained unabated for decades is a reflection of their fundamental importance for organism function and quality of life, and for their susceptibility to a variety of acquired and congenital conditions, most importantly arthritis. This has led to many advances in this field that encompass molecular genetics to biomechanics to medicine. Regrettably, what continues to be poorly understood are the mechanisms by which synovial joints actually form in the developing embryo. If available, this information would be not only of indisputable biological interest, but would also have significant biomedical ramifications, particularly in terms of designing novel tissue regeneration or reconstruction therapies. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of synovial joint formation in the limbs, and places and discusses the information within the context of classic studies and the many mysteries and questions that remain unanswered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Pacifici
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA.
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Hughes LC, Archer CW, ap Gwynn I. The ultrastructure of mouse articular cartilage: collagen orientation and implications for tissue functionality. A polarised light and scanning electron microscope study and review. Eur Cell Mater 2005; 9:68-84. [PMID: 15968593 DOI: 10.22203/ecm.v009a09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult mouse articular cartilage (AC) has not been thoroughly described using high resolution imaging techniques, despite the fact that the availability of knockout mice with specific extracellular matrix (ECM) mutations have renewed interest in using the mouse as a model for a variety of different human conditions. With osteoarthritis affecting millions of people worldwide, investigations into the structure and, therefore, the ability of AC to act as a load-bearing tissue, are crucial for developing treatments and prevention techniques to limit the degree of severity in this condition. Cryofixation and formaldehyde fixation as well as chemical digestion of the uncalcified regions of AC were used in combination with bright field light, polarised light and scanning electron microscopy to image the structure of adult mouse AC. Chemical digestion of the tissue revealed unique insights into the structure of mouse AC and the high cellular density of the tissue. Tightly packed sheets of collagen fibrils formed the territorial matrix (TM) of the deep zone. These were observed closely surrounding the chondrons, after applying both chemical and cryofixation techniques. The interterritorial matrix (IM), in contrast, was more isotropically arranged. The results of the study have implications for the interpretation of biomechanical functionality of mouse AC with probable applications to other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Hughes
- The University of Wales Bioimaging Laboratory, Institute of Biological Sciences, Aberystwyth, Wales, UK
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40
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Jadin KD, Wong BL, Bae WC, Li KW, Williamson AK, Schumacher BL, Price JH, Sah RL. Depth-varying density and organization of chondrocytes in immature and mature bovine articular cartilage assessed by 3d imaging and analysis. J Histochem Cytochem 2005; 53:1109-19. [PMID: 15879579 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.4a6511.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Articular cartilage is a heterogeneous tissue, with cell density and organization varying with depth from the surface. The objectives of the present study were to establish a method for localizing individual cells in three-dimensional (3D) images of cartilage and quantifying depth-associated variation in cellularity and cell organization at different stages of growth. Accuracy of nucleus localization was high, with 99% sensitivity relative to manual localization. Cellularity (million cells per cm3) decreased from 290, 310, and 150 near the articular surface in fetal, calf, and adult samples, respectively, to 120, 110, and 50 at a depth of 1.0 mm. The distance/angle to the nearest neighboring cell was 7.9 microm/31 degrees , 7.1 microm/31 degrees , and 9.1 microm/31 degrees for cells at the articular surface of fetal, calf, and adult samples, respectively, and increased/decreased to 11.6 microm/31 degrees , 12.0 microm/30 degrees , and 19.2 microm/25 degrees at a depth of 0.7 mm. The methodologies described here may be useful for analyzing the 3D cellular organization of cartilage during growth, maturation, aging, degeneration, and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Jadin
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0412, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, USA
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Mobasheri A, Dobson H, Mason SL, Cullingham F, Shakibaei M, Moley JF, Moley KH. Expression of the GLUT1 and GLUT9 facilitative glucose transporters in embryonic chondroblasts and mature chondrocytes in ovine articular cartilage. Cell Biol Int 2005; 29:249-60. [PMID: 15943951 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellbi.2004.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2004] [Revised: 11/15/2004] [Accepted: 11/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Glucose transport across the chondrocyte membrane is essential for chondrogenesis and the development of the skeletal system. We have previously used RT-PCR to show that fully developed human articular chondrocytes express transcripts for the GLUT1 and GLUT9 glucose transporters. In this study we report on the expression and immunohistochemical localization of the GLUT1 and GLUT9 proteins in embryonic and mature ovine cartilage. We also provide Western blot evidence for GLUT1 and GLUT9 expression in mature ovine chondrocytes. Ovine embryos (developmental stages E32 to E36 and E42 to E45) were obtained from pregnant ewes humanely killed by injection with sodium pentobarbitone. Embryos were fixed and processed for immunohistochemistry. Polyclonal antibodies to GLUT1 and GLUT9 revealed that both transporters are expressed in developing chondrocytes in ovine embryos and in the superficial, middle and deep layers of ovine cartilage from mature animals. GLUT1 expression was observed in erythrocytes and organs including heart, liver, and kidney. GLUT9 was also found in heart, kidney and liver. Western blotting confirmed the presence of the GLUT1 protein which migrated between the 50 and 64 kDa markers and two specific GLUT9 bands migrating under the 50 and 60 kDa markers, respectively. The presence of GLUT1 and GLUT9 in developing joints of ovine embryos suggests that these proteins may be important in glucose delivery to developing chondroblasts. Expression of these GLUT isoforms may be an important bioenergetic adaptation for chondrocytes in the extracellular matrix of developing cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Mobasheri
- Connective Tissue, Molecular Pathogenesis, Reproduction and Stress Research Groups, Department of Veterinary Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZJ, UK.
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Cohen I, Robinson D, Melamed E, Nevo Z. Use of a novel joint-simulating culture system to grow organized ex-vivo three-dimensional cartilage-like constructs from embryonic epiphyseal cells. Iowa Orthop J 2005; 25:102-7. [PMID: 16089081 PMCID: PMC1888783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A method for growth and maintenance of vital cartilaginous tissue is necessary for cartilage repair by in-vitro produced biologic implants. A previously tested perfusion system simulating joint activity was used. Whole epiphyses collected from thirty 11-day-old chick embryos were divided into two groups. One group was grown in a tissue culture dish for 10 days. The other group was placed in a perfusion system termed a joint-simulating device (JSD). After a period of 10 days, histology and immunohistochemistry were performed on five epiphyses from each group. Histologically, epiphyses grown in the device coalesced into a homogenous three-dimensional mass. The bridging tissue between individual epiphyses was highly cellular (PCNA staining positive) and was composed of mesenchymal stem cells as shown by expression of FGF receptor 3. No such tissue formed between epiphyses in the tissue culture dish and the epiphyseal cores were shown to be necrotic. The rest of the epiphyses were evaluated for radioactive sulfate incorporation into glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). A tenfold increase in sulfate incorporation occurred in epiphyses grown within the JSD as compared to the traditional culture method. In conclusion, embryonic epiphyses could be a suitable source for the ex-vivo growth of tissue-engineered cartilage constructs that might later be used as an in-vivo cartilage implant. The joint simulating device effectively maintains cartilage viability and bioactivity for as long as 10 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilan Cohen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rabin Medical Center, Golda Campus, Petach-Tikva, 7th Keren Kayemet St., 49372 Israel
| | - Dror Robinson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rabin Medical Center, Golda Campus, Petach-Tikva, 7th Keren Kayemet St., 49372 Israel
| | - Eitan Melamed
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rabin Medical Center, Golda Campus, Petach-Tikva, 7th Keren Kayemet St., 49372 Israel
- Correspondence: Eitan Melamed, M.D. Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rabin Medical Center, Golda Campus7 Keren Kayemet StreetPetach-Tikva, 49372, ISRAEL E-mail:
Fax: 972-3-9372501 Tel:
972-3-9372236Res.: 61 Nordau Str., 63281, Tel-Aviv, ISRAEL Tel:
972-52-3465610
| | - Zvi Nevo
- The Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Sackler Medical School, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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Rountree RB, Schoor M, Chen H, Marks ME, Harley V, Mishina Y, Kingsley DM. BMP receptor signaling is required for postnatal maintenance of articular cartilage. PLoS Biol 2004; 2:e355. [PMID: 15492776 PMCID: PMC523229 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2004] [Accepted: 08/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Articular cartilage plays an essential role in health and mobility, but is frequently damaged or lost in millions of people that develop arthritis. The molecular mechanisms that create and maintain this thin layer of cartilage that covers the surface of bones in joint regions are poorly understood, in part because tools to manipulate gene expression specifically in this tissue have not been available. Here we use regulatory information from the mouse Gdf5 gene (a bone morphogenetic protein [BMP] family member) to develop new mouse lines that can be used to either activate or inactivate genes specifically in developing joints. Expression of Cre recombinase from Gdf5 bacterial artificial chromosome clones leads to specific activation or inactivation of floxed target genes in developing joints, including early joint interzones, adult articular cartilage, and the joint capsule. We have used this system to test the role of BMP receptor signaling in joint development. Mice with null mutations in Bmpr1a are known to die early in embryogenesis with multiple defects. However, combining a floxed Bmpr1a allele with the Gdf5-Cre driver bypasses this embryonic lethality, and leads to birth and postnatal development of mice missing the Bmpr1a gene in articular regions. Most joints in the body form normally in the absence of Bmpr1a receptor function. However, articular cartilage within the joints gradually wears away in receptor-deficient mice after birth in a process resembling human osteoarthritis. Gdf5-Cre mice provide a general system that can be used to test the role of genes in articular regions. BMP receptor signaling is required not only for early development and creation of multiple tissues, but also for ongoing maintenance of articular cartilage after birth. Genetic variation in the strength of BMP receptor signaling may be an important risk factor in human osteoarthritis, and treatments that mimic or augment BMP receptor signaling should be investigated as a possible therapeutic strategy for maintaining the health of joint linings.
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MESH Headings
- Alleles
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptors/metabolism
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptors, Type I/genetics
- Bone Morphogenetic Proteins/genetics
- Cartilage/metabolism
- Cartilage/pathology
- Cartilage, Articular/embryology
- Cartilage, Articular/growth & development
- Cartilage, Articular/metabolism
- Cell Proliferation
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Bacterial/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Genetic Variation
- Growth Differentiation Factor 5
- Inflammation
- Integrases/metabolism
- Joints/embryology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation
- Osteoarthritis/metabolism
- Phenotype
- Recombination, Genetic
- Risk Factors
- Signal Transduction
- Synovial Membrane/embryology
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Rountree
- 1Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of MedicineStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Michael Schoor
- 1Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of MedicineStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Hao Chen
- 1Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of MedicineStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Melissa E Marks
- 1Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of MedicineStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Vincent Harley
- 2Prince Henry's Institute of Medical Research, Monash Medical CentreClayton, VictoriaAustralia
| | - Yuji Mishina
- 3National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of HealthResearch Triangle Park, North CarolinaUnited States of America
| | - David M Kingsley
- 1Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of MedicineStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
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Kumahashi N, Ochi M, Kataoka H, Uchio Y, Kakimaru H, Sugawara K, Enomoto KI. Involvement of ATP, increase of intracellular calcium and the early expression of c-fos in the repair of rat fetal articular cartilage. Cell Tissue Res 2004; 317:117-28. [PMID: 15205939 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-004-0893-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2003] [Accepted: 03/30/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
To compare the potential of adult and fetal animals to repair articular cartilage, we investigated the early process after creating superficial defects in the femoral knee cartilage in rat models. In fetuses at 19 days of gestation, both chondrocytes and the extracellular matrix responded notably by 48 h after artificial injury. Staining patterns with safranin O revealed that, by 1 h after injury, some components of the extracellular matrix around the wound were modified, and the change spread from the limited region to the entire knee cartilage within 24 h. The chondrocytes in the area surrounding the wound transiently expressed increased level of c-fos from 1 h to 6 h. The wound remained 1 day after birth, i.e., 72 h after injury, but was completely repaired 10 days after birth. In contrast, neither visible responses nor transient c-fos expression was observed in 12-week-old adult articular cartilage 48 h after injury. We also examined the relationships between the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) and the induction of c-fos expression in the cartilage. Applications of ATP or Ca2+ ionophore A23187, both of which increase [Ca2+]i, induced immediate expression of c-fos in primary cultured chondrocytes: 1 microM ATP elicited an increase of [Ca2+]i in chondrocytes in fetal cartilage slices, but 1 mM was required in adult cartilage slices. Our findings show the presence of a signaling pathway that is apparently active in the repair of fetal but not adult articular cartilage and that involves the intercellular transfer of ATP, increase of [Ca2+]i, and expression of c-fos in cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyuki Kumahashi
- Department of Orthopedics, School of Medicine, Shimane University, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo-shi, Shimane, Japan.
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Sen M, Cheng YH, Goldring MB, Lotz MK, Carson DA. WISP3-dependent regulation of type II collagen and aggrecan production in chondrocytes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 50:488-97. [PMID: 14872491 DOI: 10.1002/art.20005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE WISP3 (Wnt-1-inducible secreted protein 3) is a member of the CCN (connective tissue growth factor, cysteine-rich 61, nephroblastoma overexpressed) family of connective tissue growth factors. WISP3 mutations have been linked to progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia (PPRD). The present study was conducted to investigate whether WISP3 is responsible for the expression of cartilage-specific molecules. METHODS WISP3 expression in human cartilage was assessed by immunostaining with anti-WISP3 antibody. The effect of WISP3 on chondrocyte-specific gene regulation was determined by transfecting human chondrocyte lines C-28/I2 and T/C-28a2 with a WISP3 expression vector. Alterations in WISP3-mediated messenger RNA and protein expression of cartilage-specific molecules were assessed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting. RESULTS Immunohistochemistry experiments demonstrated that WISP3 protein is expressed in the midzone chondrocytes of normal adult articular cartilage, in chondrocyte clusters of osteoarthritic cartilage, and in the zone of proliferating chondrocytes of fetal growth cartilage. Human chondrocyte lines C-28/I2 and T/C-28a2 transfected with a WISP3 expression vector produced increased amounts of the cartilage-specific matrix molecules type II collagen and aggrecan, in part via activation of the sex-determining region Y-type high mobility group box (SOX) family of transcription factors. In contrast, a mutant WISP3, previously found to be associated with PPRD, had impaired effects on cartilage-specific gene expression. CONCLUSION Our experimental results suggest that WISP3 supports cartilage integrity by regulating the expression of type II collagen and aggrecan, and mutations linked with PPRD can compromise this function and produce cartilage loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malini Sen
- University of California, San Diego, CA 92093-0663, USA.
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Abstract
The mechanical behavior of cartilage is intimately related to its biochemical composition, and tissue composition is known to be influenced by its local mechanical loading environment. Although this phenomenon has been well-studied in adult cartilage, few investigations have examined such structure-function relationships in embryonic cartilage. The goal of this work was to elucidate the role of mechanical loading on the development of cartilage composition during embryogenesis. Using an embryonic chick model, cartilage from the tibiofemoral joints of immobilized embryos was compared to that of controls. The normal time course of changes in glycosaminoglycan/DNA and hydroxyproline/DNA were significantly influenced by loading history, with the most pronounced effects observed between days 9 and 14 during the period of most rapid increase in motility in control embryos. Stress-relaxation tests conducted on samples from day 14 indicate that the effects of embryonic immobilization on cartilage matrix composition have direct consequences for the mechanical behavior of the tissue, resulting in compromised material properties (e.g. 50% reduction in E(inst)). Because embryogenesis provides a unique model for identifying key factors which influence the establishment of functional biomechanical tissues in the skeleton, these data suggest that treating mechanical loading as an in vitro culture variable for tissue engineering approaches to cartilage repair is likely to be a sound approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borjana Mikic
- Picker Engineering Program, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA.
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47
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Articular cartilage homoeostasis is critical for joint function. The steady state homoeostasis of articular cartilage is a balance between anabolic morphogens such as cartilage derived morphogenetic proteins (CDMPs) and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) of the BMP family and catabolic cytokines such as interleukin (IL)1, IL17, and tumour necrosis factor alpha. Although bone and articular cartilage are adjacent tissues, there is a profound difference in their regeneration potential. Bone has the highest potential for regeneration. On the other hand, articular cartilage is recalcitrant to repair. OBJECTIVE To examine the hypothesis that the feeble innate regeneration ability of cartilage is due to the preponderance of catabolic cytokines such as IL1 and IL17. RESULTS During a systematic investigation of CDMPs and cytokines IL17B (chondroleukin) was found in bovine articular cartilage. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS BMP-7 and IL17B are present in articular cartilage and synthesised in chondrocytes as shown by northern blots and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The coexistence of anabolic morphogens and catabolic cytokines in articular cartilage has important implications for cartilage homoeostasis and regeneration. The networks of signalling systems of morphogens and cytokines determine the net capacity for regenerative morphogenesis of articular cartilage. Finally, the feeble innate capacity for articular cartilage may be improved by targeted therapy by soluble receptors to block catabolic cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Reddi
- Centre for Tissue Regeneration and Repair, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California 95817, USA.
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Zhang ZJ, Huckle J, Francomano CA, Spencer RGS. The effects of pulsed low-intensity ultrasound on chondrocyte viability, proliferation, gene expression and matrix production. Ultrasound Med Biol 2003; 29:1645-1651. [PMID: 14654159 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2003.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This study was designed to examine the effects of pulsed low-intensity ultrasound (PLIUS) on chondrocyte viability, proliferation, matrix production and gene expression. Chondrocytes were isolated from the distal part of the sternum of 16-day-old chick embryos and cultured in alginate beads. PLIUS at 2 mW/cm(2) (group PLIUS(2)) and 30 mW/cm(2) (group PLIUS(30)) was applied to chondrocytes for a single 20-min treatment. A control group was treated without PLIUS. The viability of chondrocytes was not affected by exposure to PLIUS. PLIUS influenced chondrocyte proliferation in an intensity-dependent manner. By day 7 after application of PLIUS, the gene expression and synthesis of aggrecan was the same as in the controls. At this same time point, the expression and synthesis of type II collagen was not different between the controls and PLIUS(30), but was increased in PLIUS(2). PLIUS was shown to inhibit the expression of type X collagen. This inhibition of chondrocyte hypertrophy may prove to be significant in the management of cartilage degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Jun Zhang
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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49
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Oztuna V, Coşkun B, Polat A, Kuyurtar F. [The development of the wrist joint in the fetal period]. Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc 2003; 37:254-60. [PMID: 12845299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study was designed to investigate the development and anatomical features of the wrist joint, particularly the scapholunate ligament and triangular disc in the fetal period and to identify possible congenital variations. METHODS The study included 16 wrist joints of eight fetuses aborted at ages 8 to 14 weeks. The samples had no macroscopically discernible anomalies. Tissue specimens were fixed in 10% formalin solution, embedded in paraffin, and mounted on a microtome to obtain 5-micron sections in the coronal plane. Following staining with hematoxylin and eosin, conventional light microscopic examinations were performed. RESULTS Organization of the carpal ligaments in the wrist joint began on the radial side in the 9th week. In the 10th week, the scapholunate ligament was formed; a membranous structure was observed, which lied from the interfacet prominence of the radius to the scapholunate ligament and divided the wrist joint into two cavities. The triangular disc formation began to appear at this stage. During the 11th and 12th weeks, the membranous structure underwent regression from the dorsal to the volar aspects, and at the end of the 14th week, the wrist joint became a single cavity. Also noted was the development of fibrous appearance of the scapholunate ligament and the triangular disc into fibrocartilage. Vascular areas were identified on the radial rather than the ulnar side of the scapholunate ligament, but vice versa for the triangular disc. Bicompartmental structure seemed to persist in the wrist joint of a 14-week-old fetus. CONCLUSION In this study, we demonstrated that the scapholunate ligament and the triangular disc were not homogeneous in the fetal period in terms of vascularity and cellularity. We speculate that a plica-like membranous structure may persist in the wrist joint as a remnant of the fetal life. An accurate knowledge of the anatomy is necessary for the treatment planning and arthroscopic interpretation of the wrist joint.
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Lindahl A, Brittberg M, Peterson L. Cartilage repair with chondrocytes: clinical and cellular aspects. Novartis Found Symp 2003; 249:175-86; discussion 186-9, 234-8, 239-41. [PMID: 12708656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Articular cartilage has a limited potential to repair. Unsatisfactory results with current treatment methods (e.g. osteochondral autografts, drilling or microfracturing) has triggered the development of new cartilage restoration techniques including autologous cell transplantation (mesenchymal stem cells or chondrocytes) with or without supporting scaffolds. Autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) was first used in humans in 1987 and the first pilot was published in 1994. Two years after transplantation, 14 of the 16 patients with femoral condyle transplants had a restored joint function and 11 of 15 femoral transplants demonstrated a hyaline repair tissue. Results from patellar transplants were less encouraging. To date, we have treated over 1000 and other groups over 6000 patients. The technique gives stable long-term results with a high percentage of good to excellent results (84-90%) in patients with different types of single femoral condyle lesions, whereas in patients with other types of lesions in the knee it is less successful (average 74%). A better understanding of the repair mechanism induced by the cultured chondrocytes and the regulatory mechanisms controlling chondrogenic differentiation combined with identification and culture of stem cells with chondrogenic potential will be the key to new cartilage treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Lindahl
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at Gothenburg University, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, S-413 Göteborg, Sweden
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