Dynamic magnetic resonance measurements of calf muscle oxygenation and energy metabolism in peripheral artery disease

Sequence building block for magnetic resonance spectroscopy on Siemens VE-series scanners

We present a sequence building block (SBB) that embeds magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) into another sequence on the Siemens VE platform without any custom hardware. This enables dynamic studies such as functional MRS (fMRS), dynamic shimming and frequency correction, and acquisition of navigator images for motion correction. The SBB supports nonlocalised spectroscopy (free induction decay), STimulated Echo Acquisition Mode single voxel spectroscopy, and 1D, 2D and 3D phase-encoded chemical shift imaging. It can embed 1H or X-nuclear MRS into a 1H sequence; and 1H-MRS into an X-nuclear sequence. We demonstrate integration into the vendor's gradient-recalled echo sequence. We acquire test data in phantoms with three coils (31P/1H, 13C/1H and 2H/1H) and in two volunteers on a 7-T Terra MRI scanner. Fifteen lines of code are required to insert the SBB into a sequence. Spectra and images are acquired successfully in all cases in phantoms, and in human abdomen and calf muscle. Phantom comparison of signal-to-noise ratio and linewidth showed that the SBB has negligible effects on image and spectral quality, except that it sometimes produces a nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) signal enhancement for multinuclear applications in line with conventional 1H NOE pulses. Our new SBB embeds MRS into a host imaging or spectroscopy sequence in 15 lines of code. It allows homonuclear and heteronuclear interleaving. The package is available through the standard C2P procedure. We hope this will lower the barrier for entry to studies applying dynamic fMRS and for online motion correction and B0-shim updating.

Clinical physiology: the crucial role of MRI in evaluation of peripheral artery disease

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a common vascular disease that primarily affects the lower limbs and is defined by the constriction or blockage of peripheral arteries and may involve microvascular dysfunction and tissue injury. Patients with diabetes have more prominent disease of microcirculation and develop peripheral neuropathy, autonomic dysfunction, and medial vascular calcification. Early and accurate diagnosis of PAD and disease characterization are essential for personalized management and therapy planning. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides excellent soft tissue contrast and multiplanar imaging capabilities and is useful as a noninvasive imaging tool in the comprehensive physiological assessment of PAD. This review provides an overview of the current state of the art of MRI in the evaluation and characterization of PAD, including an analysis of the many applicable MR imaging techniques, describing the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. We also present recent developments, future clinical applications, and future MRI directions in assessing PAD. The development of new MR imaging technologies and applications in preclinical models with translation to clinical research holds considerable potential for improving the understanding of the pathophysiology of PAD and clinical applications for improving diagnostic precision, risk stratification, and treatment outcomes in patients with PAD.

Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent MR Imaging of Lower Extremities in Peripheral Artery Disease and Its Correlation With Walking Performance

BACKGROUND

A noninvasive and reliable approach to quantitatively measure muscle perfusion of lower extremity is needed to aid the diagnosis and treatment of peripheral artery disease (PAD).

PURPOSE

To verify the reproductivity of using blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) imaging to evaluate perfusion in lower extremities, and explore its correlation with walking performance in patients with PAD.

STUDY TYPE

Prospective observational study.

SUBJECTS

Seventeen patients with lower extremity PAD (mean age: 67 ± 6 years, 15 males) and eight older adults (controls).

FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE

Dynamic multi-echo gradient echo T2* weighted imaging at 3T.

ASSESSMENT

Perfusion was analyzed in regions of interest according to muscle groups. Perfusion parameters were measured, such as minimum ischemia value (MIV), time to peak (TTP), and gradient during reactive hyperemia (Grad) by two independent users. Walking performance experiments including short physical performance battery (SPPB) and 6-minute walk were tested in patients.

STATISTICAL TESTS

BOLD parameters were compared using Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis test. Relations between parameters and walking performance were assessed by Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman's correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

Good to perfect agreement was demonstrated for all perfusion parameters of interuser reproducibility, and the interscan reproducibility of MIV, TTP, and Grad was good. The TTP of the patients was longer than that of the controls (87.85 ± 38.85 s vs. 36.54 ± 7.27 s), while the Grad of patients was smaller (0.16 ± 0.12 msec/s vs. 0.24 ± 0.11 msec/s). Among PAD patients, the MIV was significantly lower in the low SPPB subgroup (score 6-8) than in the high SPPB group (score 9-12), and the TTP was negatively correlated with 6-minute walk distance (ρ = -0.549).

DATA CONCLUSION

BOLD imaging method had overall good reproducibility for the perfusion assessment of calf muscles. The perfusion parameters were different between PAD patients and controls, and were correlated with lower extremity function.

EVIDENCE LEVEL

2 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 2.

Arterial occlusion duration affects the cuff-induced hyperemic response in skeletal muscle BOLD perfusion imaging as shown in young healthy subjects

OBJECTIVE

Dynamic BOLD MRI with cuff compression, inducing ischemia and post-occlusive hyperemia in skeletal muscle, has been pointed out as a potential diagnostic tool to assess peripheral limb perfusion. The objective was to explore the robustness of this technique and its sensitivity to the occlusion duration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BOLD images were acquired at 3 T in 14 healthy volunteers. [Formula: see text]-imaging with 5- and 1.5-min occlusions were acquired and several semi-quantitative BOLD parameters were derived from ROI-based [Formula: see text]-time curves. Differences in parameters from the two different occlusion durations were evaluated in the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles using non-parametrical tests. Intra- and inter-scan repeatability were evaluated with coefficient of variation.

RESULTS

Longer occlusion duration resulted in an increased hyperemic signal effect yielding significantly different values (p < 0.05) in gastrocnemius for all parameters describing the hyperemic response, and in soleus for two of these parameters. Specifically, 5-min occlusion yielded steeper hyperemic upslope in gastrocnemius (41.0%; p < 0.05) and soleus (59.7%; p = 0.03), shorter time to half peak in gastrocnemius (46.9%; p = 0.00008) and soleus (33.5%; p = 0.0003), and shorter time to peak in gastrocnemius (13.5%; p = 0.02). Coefficients of variation were lower than percentage differences that were found significant.

DISCUSSION

Findings show that the occlusion duration indeed influences the hyperemic response and thus should play a part in future methodological developments.

Interleaved and simultaneous multi-nuclear magnetic resonance in vivo. Review of principles, applications and potential

Magnetic resonance signals from different nuclei can be excited or received at the same time,rendering simultaneous or rapidly interleaved multi-nuclear acquisitions feasible. The advan-tages are a reduction of total scan time compared to sequential multi-nuclear acquisitions or that additional information from heteronuclear data is obtained at thesame time and anatomical position. Information content can be qualitatively increased by delivering a more comprehensive MR-based picture of a transient state (such as an exercise bout). Also, combiningnon-proton MR acquisitions with ¹ Hinformation (e.g., dynamic shim updates and motion correction) can be used to improve data quality during long scans and benefits image coregistration. This work reviews the literature on interleaved and simultaneous multi-nuclear MRI and MRS in vivo. Prominent use cases for this methodology in clinical and research applications are brain and muscle, but studies have also been carried out in other targets, including the lung, knee, breast and heart. Simultaneous multi-nuclear measurements in the liver and kidney have also been performed, but exclusively in rodents. In this review, a consistent nomenclature is proposed, to help clarify the terminology used for this principle throughout the literature on in-vivo MR. An overview covers the basic principles, the technical requirements on the MR scanner and the implementations realised either by MR system vendors or research groups, from the early days until today. Considerations regarding the multi-tuned RF coils required and heteronuclear polarisation interactions are briefly discussed, and fields for future in-vivo applications for interleaved multi-nuclear MR pulse sequences are identified.

Dynamic MR imaging of cerebral perfusion during bicycling exercise

Habitual physical activity is beneficial for cerebrovascular health and cognitive function. Physical exercise therefore constitutes a clinically relevant cerebrovascular stimulus. This study demonstrates the feasibility of quantitative cerebral blood flow (CBF) measurements during supine bicycling exercise with pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling (pCASL) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 3 Tesla. Twelve healthy volunteers performed a steady-state exercise-recovery protocol on an MR-compatible bicycle ergometer, while dynamic pCASL data were acquired at rest, during moderate (60% of the age-predicted supine maximal heart rate (HR_max)) and vigorous (80% of supine HR_max) exercise, and subsequent recovery. These CBF measurements were compared with 2D phase-contrast MRI measurements of blood flow through the carotid arteries. Procedures were repeated on a separate day for an assessment of measurement repeatability. Whole-brain (WB) CBF was 41.2 ± 6.9 mL/100 g/min at rest (heart rate 63 [57-71] beats/min), remained similar at moderate exercise (102 [97-107] beats/min), decreased by 10% to 37.1 ± 5.7 mL/100 g/min (p = 0.001) during vigorous exercise (139 [136-142] beats/min) and decreased further to 34.2 ± 6.0 mL/100 g/min (p < 0.001) during recovery. Hippocampus CBF decreased by 12% (p = 0.001) during moderate exercise, decreased further during vigorous exercise (-21%; p < 0.001) and was even lower during recovery (-31%; p < 0.001). In contrast, motor cortex CBF increased by 12% (p = 0.027) during moderate exercise, returned to resting-state values during vigorous exercise, and decreased by 17% (p = 0.006) during recovery. The inter-session repeatability coefficients for WB CBF were approximately 20% for all stages of the exercise-recovery protocol. Phase-contrast blood flow measurements through the common carotid arteries overestimated the WB CBF because of flow directed to the face and scalp. This bias increased with exercise. We have demonstrated the feasibility of dynamic pCASL-MRI of the human brain for a quantitative evaluation of cerebral perfusion during bicycling exercise. Our spatially resolved measurements revealed a differential response of CBF in the motor cortex as well as the hippocampus compared with the brain as a whole. Caution is warranted when using flow through the common carotid arteries as a surrogate measure for cerebral perfusion.

A Reperfusion BOLD-MRI Tissue Perfusion Protocol Reliably Differentiate Patients with Peripheral Arterial Occlusive Disease from Healthy Controls

There is no established technique that directly quantifies lower limb tissue perfusion. Blood oxygenation level-dependent magnetic resonance imaging (BOLD-MRI) is an MRI technique that can determine skeletal muscle perfusion. BOLD-MRI relies on magnetic differences of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin, and regional changes in oxy/deoxyhemoglobin ratio can be recorded by T2* weighted MRI sequences. We aimed to test whether BOLD-MRI can differentiate lower limb tissue perfusion in peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD) patients and healthy controls. Twenty-two PAOD patients and ten healthy elderly volunteers underwent lower limb BOLD-MRI. Reactive hyperemia was provoked by transient cuff compression and images of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles were continuously acquired at rest, during ischemia and reperfusion. Key BOLD parameters were baseline T2* absolute value and time to T2* peak value after cuff deflation (TTP). Correlations between imaging parameters and ankle-brachial index (ABI) was investigated. The mean TTP was considerably prolonged in PAOD patients compared to healthy controls (m. gastrocnemius: 111 ± 46 versus 48 ± 22 s, p = 0.000253; m. soleus: 100 ± 42 versus 41 ± 30 s, p = 0.000216). Both gastrocnemius and soleus TTP values correlated strongly with ABI (−0.82 and −0.78, p < 0.01). BOLD-MRI during reactive hyperemia differentiated most PAOD patients from healthy controls. TTP was the most decisive parameter and strongly correlated with the ABI.

Spatiotemporal monitoring of changes in oxy/deoxy-hemoglobin concentration and blood pulsation on human skin using smartphone-enabled remote multispectral photoplethysmography

We propose a smartphone-enabled remote multispectral photoplethysmography (SP-rmPPG) system and method to realize spatiotemporal monitoring of perfusion changes and pulsations of the oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) and deoxyhemoglobin (Hb) information of the effective blood volume within light interrogated skin tissue beds. The system is implemented on an unmodified smartphone utilizing its built-in camera and flashlight to acquire videos of the skin reflectance. The SP-rmPPG method converts the RGB video into multispectral cubes, upon which to decouple the dynamic changes in HbO2 and Hb information using a modified Beer-Lambert law and the selective wavelength bands of 500 nm and 650 nm. Blood pulsation amplitudes are then obtained by applying a window-based lock-in amplification on the derived spatiotemporal changes in HbO2 or Hb signals. To demonstrate the feasibility of proposed method, we conduct two experiments on the skin tissue beds that are conditioned by occlusive maneuver of supplying arteries: one using the popular blood cuff pressure maneuver on the upper arm, and another artificially inducing a transient ischemic condition on the facial skin tissue beds by finger pressing on the supplying external carotid artery. The cuff experiment shows that the measured dynamic information of HbO2 and Hb in the downstream agrees well with the parallel measurements of oxygenation saturation given by the standard pulse oximeter. We also observe the expected imbalance of spatiotemporal changes in the HbO2 and Hb between the right and left cheeks when the transient ischemic condition is induced in the one side of facial skin tissue beds. The results from the two experiments sufficiently demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method to monitor the spatiotemporal changes in the skin hemodynamics, including blood oxygenation and pulsation amplitudes. Considering the ever-growing accessibility and affordability of the smartphone to the general public, the proposed strategy promises the early screening of vascular diseases and improving general public health particularly in rural areas with low resource settings.

Repeatability of multinuclear interleaved acquisitions with nuclear Overhauser enhancement effect in dynamic experiments in the calf muscle at 3T

PURPOSE

To evaluate the repeatability of multinuclear interleaved ¹ H/³¹ P NMR dynamic acquisitions in skeletal muscle and the impact of nuclear Overhauser enhancement (nOe) on the ³¹ P results at 3T in exercise-recovery and ischemia-hyperemia paradigms.

METHODS

A ¹ H/³¹ P interleaved pulse sequence was used to measure every 2.5 s a perfusion-weighted image, a T 2 ∗ map, a ³¹ P spectrum and 32 ¹ H spectra sensitive to deoxymyoglobin. 21 subjects performed a plantar flexion exercise and after recovery underwent an 8-min lower leg ischemia. The procedure was repeated in visit 2 with 12 subjects. An additional exercise bout without ¹ H excitation was appended to visit 1. Individual ¹ H RF pulse nOe was measured at rest in every visit.

RESULTS

Repeatability scores (coefficient of variation, Bland-Altman analysis) were similar to those found in the literature using similar mono-nuclear acquisitions. |Pi]/[PCr], pH drop, creatine rephosphorylation rate (τ_PCr ), maximum perfusion, time to peak perfusion, and blood flow post-exercise showed high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient > 0.7), whereas hemodynamic results from reactive hyperemia showed higher repeatability. After accounting for nOe, which increased Pi and PCr signal-to-noise ratio by 30%, no differences in ³¹ P results were observed between interleaved and ³¹ P MRS-only acquisitions. τ_PCr was unaffected by nOe.

CONCLUSION

The method shows good repeatability for both paradigms while simultaneously providing multiple dynamic data sets on a clinical scanner. The nOe effects were accounted for on a per-subject and per-visit basis using a short ³¹ P reference scan. This multiparametric approach has a multitude of applications for the study of oxygen utilization and ATP turnover in the muscle.

Quantitative and Dynamic MRI Measures of Peripheral Vascular Function

The endothelium regulates and mediates vascular homeostasis, allowing for dynamic changes of blood flow in response to mechanical and chemical stimuli. Endothelial dysfunction underlies many diseases and is purported to be the earliest pathologic change in the progression of atherosclerotic disease. Peripheral vascular function can be interrogated by measuring the response kinetics following induced ischemia or exercise. In the presence of endothelial dysfunction, there is a blunting and delay of the hyperemic response, which can be measured non-invasively using a variety of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods. In this review, we summarize recent developments in non-contrast, proton MRI for dynamic quantification of blood flow and oxygenation. Methodologic description is provided for: blood oxygenation-level dependent (BOLD) signal that reflect combined effect of blood flow and capillary bed oxygen content; arterial spin labeling (ASL) for quantification of regional perfusion; phase contrast (PC) to quantify arterial flow waveforms and macrovascular blood flow velocity and rate; high-resolution MRI for luminal flow-mediated dilation; and dynamic MR oximetry to quantify oxygen saturation. Overall, results suggest that these dynamic and quantitative MRI methods can detect endothelial dysfunction both in the presence of overt cardiovascular disease (such as in patients with peripheral artery disease), as well as in sub-clinical settings (i.e., in chronic smokers, non-smokers exposed to e-cigarette aerosol, and as a function of age). Thus far, these tools have been relegated to the realm of research, used as biomarkers of disease progression and therapeutic response. With proper validation, MRI-measures of vascular function may ultimately be used to complement the standard clinical workup, providing additional insight into the optimal treatment strategy and evaluation of treatment efficacy.

31 P magnetic resonance spectroscopy in skeletal muscle: Experts' consensus recommendations

Skeletal muscle phosphorus-31 31 P MRS is the oldest MRS methodology to be applied to in vivo metabolic research. The technical requirements of 31 P MRS in skeletal muscle depend on the research question, and to assess those questions requires understanding both the relevant muscle physiology, and how 31 P MRS methods can probe it. Here we consider basic signal-acquisition parameters related to radio frequency excitation, TR, TE, spectral resolution, shim and localisation. We make specific recommendations for studies of resting and exercising muscle, including magnetisation transfer, and for data processing. We summarise the metabolic information that can be quantitatively assessed with 31 P MRS, either measured directly or derived by calculations that depend on particular metabolic models, and we give advice on potential problems of interpretation. We give expected values and tolerable ranges for some measured quantities, and minimum requirements for reporting acquisition parameters and experimental results in publications. Reliable examination depends on a reproducible setup, standardised preconditioning of the subject, and careful control of potential difficulties, and we summarise some important considerations and potential confounders. Our recommendations include the quantification and standardisation of contraction intensity, and how best to account for heterogeneous muscle recruitment. We highlight some pitfalls in the assessment of mitochondrial function by analysis of phosphocreatine (PCr) recovery kinetics. Finally, we outline how complementary techniques (near-infrared spectroscopy, arterial spin labelling, BOLD and various other MRI and 1 H MRS measurements) can help in the physiological/metabolic interpretation of 31 P MRS studies by providing information about blood flow and oxygen delivery/utilisation. Our recommendations will assist in achieving the fullest possible reliable picture of muscle physiology and pathophysiology.

Failing Homeostasis of Quadriceps Muscle Energy- and pH Balance During Bicycling in a Young Patient With a Fontan Circulation

Aims: Patients with a congenital heart condition palliated with a Fontan circulation generally present with decreased exercise capacity due to impaired cardiopulmonary function. Recently, a study in patients with a Fontan circulation reported evidence for abnormal vascular endothelial function in leg muscle. We investigated if abnormal skeletal muscle hemodynamics during exercise play a role in the limited exercise tolerance of Fontan patients. If so, abnormalities in intramuscular energy metabolism would be expected both during exercise as well as during post-exercise metabolic recovery.

Methods: In a young patient with a Fontan circulation and his healthy twin brother we studied the in vivo dynamics of energy- and pH-balance in quadriceps muscle during and after a maximal in-magnet bicycling exercise challenge using 31-phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy. An unrelated age-matched boy was also included as independent control.

Results: Quadriceps phosphocreatine (PCr) depletion during progressive exercise was more extensive in the Fontan patient than in both controls (95% vs. 80%, respectively). Importantly, it failed to reach an intermittent plateau phase observed in both controls. Quadriceps pH during exercise in the Fontan patient fell 0.3 units at low to moderate workloads, dropping to pH 6.6 at exhaustion. In both controls quadriceps acidification during exercise was absent but for the maximal workload in the twin brother (pH 6.8). Post-exercise, the rate of metabolic recovery in the Fontan patient and both controls was identical (time constant of PCr recovery 32 ± 4, 31 ± 2, and 28 ± 4 s, respectively).

Conclusion: Homeostasis of quadriceps energy- and pH-balance during a maximal exercise test failed in the Fontan patient in comparison to his healthy twin brother and an age-matched independent control. Post-exercise metabolic recovery was normal which does not support the contribution of significant endothelial dysfunction affecting adequate delivery of oxidative substrates to the muscle to the lower exercise capacity in this particular Fontan patient. These results suggest that mitochondrial ATP synthetic capacity of the quadriceps muscle was intact but cardiac output to the leg muscles during exercise was insufficient to meet the muscular demand for oxygen. Therefore, improving cardiac output remains the main therapeutic target to improve exercise capacity in patients with a Fontan circulation.