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Nieddu M, Baralla E, Sodano F, Boatto G. Analysis of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and 2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamines aiming their determination in biological matrices: a review. Forensic Toxicol 2023; 41:1-24. [PMID: 36652064 PMCID: PMC9849320 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-022-00638-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present review aims to provide an overview of methods for the quantification of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and -phenethylamines in different biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones. METHODS A complete literature search was carried out with PubMed, Scopus and the World Wide Web using relevant keywords, e.g., designer drugs, amphetamines, phenethylamines, and biological matrices. RESULTS Synthetic phenethylamines represent one of the largest classes of "designer drugs", obtained through chemical structure modifications of psychoactive substances to increase their pharmacological activities. This practice is also favored by the fact that every new synthetic compound is not considered illegal by existing legislation. Generally, in a toxicological laboratory, the first monitoring of drugs of abuse is made by rapid screening tests that sometimes can occur in false positive or false negative results. To reduce evaluation errors, it is mandatory to submit the positive samples to confirmatory methods, such as gas chromatography or liquid chromatography combined to mass spectrometry, for a more specific qualitative and quantitative analysis. CONCLUSIONS This review highlights the great need for updated comprehensive analytical methods, particularly when analyzing biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones, for the search of newly emerging designer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nieddu
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Elena Baralla
- grid.11450.310000 0001 2097 9138Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Federica Sodano
- grid.4691.a0000 0001 0790 385XDepartment of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Gianpiero Boatto
- grid.11450.310000 0001 2097 9138Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
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Kupriyanova OV, Shevyrin VA, Shafran YM, Lebedev AT, Milyukov VA, Rusinov VL. Synthesis and determination of analytical characteristics and differentiation of positional isomers in the series of
N
‐(2‐methoxybenzyl)‐2‐(dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine using chromatography–mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:1154-1170. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Olga V. Kupriyanova
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry FRC Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan Scientific Center Kazan Russian Federation
- Kazan State Medical University Kazan Russian Federation
| | - Vadim A. Shevyrin
- Ural Federal University Institute of Chemistry and Technology Ekaterinburg Russian Federation
| | - Yuri M. Shafran
- Ural Federal University Institute of Chemistry and Technology Ekaterinburg Russian Federation
| | - Albert T. Lebedev
- Organic Chemistry Department Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow Russian Federation
| | - Vasili A. Milyukov
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry FRC Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan Scientific Center Kazan Russian Federation
| | - Vladimir L. Rusinov
- Ural Federal University Institute of Chemistry and Technology Ekaterinburg Russian Federation
- Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yekaterinburg Russian Federation
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Gracia-Lor E, Castiglioni S, Bade R, Been F, Castrignanò E, Covaci A, González-Mariño I, Hapeshi E, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Kinyua J, Lai FY, Letzel T, Lopardo L, Meyer MR, O'Brien J, Ramin P, Rousis NI, Rydevik A, Ryu Y, Santos MM, Senta I, Thomaidis NS, Veloutsou S, Yang Z, Zuccato E, Bijlsma L. Measuring biomarkers in wastewater as a new source of epidemiological information: Current state and future perspectives. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 99:131-150. [PMID: 28038971 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The information obtained from the chemical analysis of specific human excretion products (biomarkers) in urban wastewater can be used to estimate the exposure or consumption of the population under investigation to a defined substance. A proper biomarker can provide relevant information about lifestyle habits, health and wellbeing, but its selection is not an easy task as it should fulfil several specific requirements in order to be successfully employed. This paper aims to summarize the current knowledge related to the most relevant biomarkers used so far. In addition, some potential wastewater biomarkers that could be used for future applications were evaluated. For this purpose, representative chemical classes have been chosen and grouped in four main categories: (i) those that provide estimates of lifestyle factors and substance use, (ii) those used to estimate the exposure to toxicants present in the environment and food, (iii) those that have the potential to provide information about public health and illness and (iv) those used to estimate the population size. To facilitate the evaluation of the eligibility of a compound as a biomarker, information, when available, on stability in urine and wastewater and pharmacokinetic data (i.e. metabolism and urinary excretion profile) has been reviewed. Finally, several needs and recommendations for future research are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Gracia-Lor
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain; IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Richard Bade
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain.
| | - Frederic Been
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Erika Castrignanò
- Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Evroula Hapeshi
- NIREAS-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus.
| | | | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Thomas Letzel
- Analytical Group, Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Germany.
| | - Luigi Lopardo
- Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany.
| | - Jake O'Brien
- National Research Center for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - Pedram Ramin
- Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.
| | - Nikolaos I Rousis
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Axel Rydevik
- Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Yeonsuk Ryu
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Miguel M Santos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, LA-Interdisciplinary Centre for marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal; FCUP-Dept of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Ivan Senta
- Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Nikolaos S Thomaidis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece.
| | - Sofia Veloutsou
- Analytical Group, Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Germany.
| | - Zhugen Yang
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, G128LT Glasgow, United Kingdom.
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain.
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Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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Shevyrin V, Kupriyanova O, Lebedev AT, Melkozerov V, Eltsov O, Shafran Y, Morzherin Y, Sadykova R. Mass spectrometric properties of N-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2-(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2,4,6-TMPEA-NBOMe), a new representative of designer drugs of NBOMe series and derivatives thereof. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2016; 51:969-979. [PMID: 27388323 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Emergence of new psychoactive substances, hallucinogenic phenethylamines in particular, in illicit market is a serious threat to human health in global scale. We have detected and identified N-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2-(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2,4,6-TMPEA-NBOMe), a new compound in NBOMe series. Identification was achieved by means of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), including high-resolution mass spectrometry with tandem experiments (GC/HRMS and GC/HRMS2 ), ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry with tandem experiments (UHPLC/HRMS and UHPLC/HRMS2 ), and 1 H and 13 C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The peculiarities of fragmentation of the compound under electron ionization (EI) and collision-induced dissociation were studied. Despite of the empirical rule denying migration of the hydrogen atom in McLafferty rearrangement to the benzene ring with substituents in the both ortho-positions, it easily occurs for 2,4,6-TMPEA-NBOMe in EI conditions. We have noticed that electron-donating substituents, e.g. methoxy groups in the both ortho-positions and para-positions favor the rearrangement. For specially synthesized N-methyl and N-acyl derivatives McLafferty rearrangement is not observed. N-Acyl derivatives demonstrate McLafferty rearrangement, but the charge retains at the alternative fragment involving N-acyl carbonyl group. We have also showed that the hydrogen atoms in 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzene ring may be easily substituted for deuterium or for strong electrophiles like trifluoroacetyl. Analytical characteristics of 2,4,6-TMPEA-NBOMe and of some derivatives thereof which enable their determination in various criminal seizures are given. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim Shevyrin
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., Ekaterinburg, 620002, Russia.
| | - Olga Kupriyanova
- Kazan Scientific Center, A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 8 Arbuzov St., Kazan, 420088, Russia
| | - Albert T Lebedev
- Organic Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Vladimir Melkozerov
- Main Agency of the Ministry of the Interior of the Russian Federation, Sverdlovsk Region Branch, Expert and Criminalistic Center, 17 Lenina Avenue, Ekaterinburg, 620014, Russia
| | - Oleg Eltsov
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., Ekaterinburg, 620002, Russia
| | - Yuri Shafran
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., Ekaterinburg, 620002, Russia
| | - Yuri Morzherin
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., Ekaterinburg, 620002, Russia
| | - Raziya Sadykova
- Kazan State Medical University, 49 Butlerov St., Kazan, 420012, Russia
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Linsen F, Koning RPJ, van Laar M, Niesink RJM, Koeter MW, Brunt TM. 4-Fluoroamphetamine in the Netherlands: more than a one-night stand. Addiction 2015; 110:1138-43. [PMID: 25808511 DOI: 10.1111/add.12932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the temporal pattern of appearance of a new psychoactive substance (4-fluoroamphetamine) on the Dutch drug market, as well as its patterns of use and effects. DESIGN Data from the Drug Information and Monitoring System (DIMS) was used to investigate the emergence of 4-fluoroamphetamine on the Dutch drug market. An on-line questionnaire was used to study its patterns of use and effects. SETTING Dutch drug-related websites and social media. PARTICIPANTS A convenience sample of 249 life-time 4-fluoroamphetamine users was recruited through the internet. MEASUREMENTS Samples containing 4-fluoroamphetamine were extracted from the DIMS database for further investigation. Patterns of use, settings of use and the subjective effects of 4-fluoroamphetamine, amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) were investigated with the on-line questionnaire. FINDINGS 4-Fluoroamphetamine was first encountered on the Dutch drug market, sold mainly as amphetamine or ecstasy (MDMA), between 2007 and 2009. These misrepresented drug samples declined when the MDMA and amphetamine markets recovered after a period of shortage, whereas purposefully bought 4-fluoroamphetamine samples showed an increase. Survey results showed that 4-fluoroamphetamine is used predominantly [77.1%, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 72.0-82.3] for its specific effects, rather than its legal status (17.7%, 95% CI = 10.7-22.1). The subjective effects of 4-fluoroamphetamine were compared with those of amphetamine and MDMA. Subjective effect scores of 4-fluoroamphetamine ranged between those of amphetamine and MDMA. CONCLUSIONS The stimulant 4-fluoroamphetamine is increasingly popular in the Netherlands, which might be due to its subjective effects profile, which lies intermediate between amphetamine and MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Linsen
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Drug Information and Monitoring System, Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Raoul P J Koning
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Drug Information and Monitoring System, Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Margriet van Laar
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Drug Information and Monitoring System, Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Raymond J M Niesink
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Drug Information and Monitoring System, Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Maarten W Koeter
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Drug Information and Monitoring System, Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Kerrigan S, Mott A, Jatzlau B, Ortiz F, Perrella L, Martin S, Bryand K. Designer Psychostimulants in Urine by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry,. J Forensic Sci 2013; 59:175-83. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
- Sam Houston State University Regional Crime Laboratory; The Woodlands TX 77381
| | - Ashley Mott
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
| | - Breanna Jatzlau
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
| | - Francisco Ortiz
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
| | - Laura Perrella
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
| | - Sarah Martin
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
| | - Kelsie Bryand
- Department of Forensic Science; College of Criminal Justice; Sam Houston State University; Box 2525 1003 Bowers Blvd. Huntsville TX 77341
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Current status of hyphenated mass spectrometry in studies of the metabolism of drugs of abuse, including doping agents. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:195-208. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Abstract
Since the late 1990s the illicit drug market has undergone considerable change: along with the traditional drugs of abuse that still dominate, more than 100 psychotropic substances designed to bypass controlled substances legislation have appeared and led to intoxications and fatalities. Starting from the huge class of phenylalkylamines, containing many subgroups, the spectrum of structures has grown from tryptamines, piperazines, phenylcyclohexyl derivates and pyrrolidinophenones to synthetic cannabinoids and the first synthetic cocaine. Due to the small prevalence and high number of unknown substances, the detection of new designer drugs is a challenge for clinical and forensic toxicologists. Standard screening procedures might fail because a recently discovered or yet unknown substance has not been incorporated in the library used. Nevertheless, many metabolism studies, case reports, screening methods and substance-profiling papers concentrating on single compounds have been published. This review provides an overview of the developed bioanalytical and analytical methods, the matrices used, sample-preparation procedures, concentration of analytes in case of intoxication and also gives a résumé of immunoassay experiences. Additionally, six screening methods for biological matrices with a larger spectrum of analytes are described in more detail.
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Abstract
In recent years, besides the classic designer drugs of the amphetamine type, a series of new drug classes appeared on the illicit drugs market. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and toxicokinetics is discussed of 2,5-dimethoxy amphetamines, 2,5-dimethoxy phenethylamines, beta-keto-amphetamines, phencyclidine derivatives as well as of herbal drugs, ie, Kratom. They have gained popularity and notoriety as rave drugs. The metabolic pathways, the involvement of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the main pathways, and their roles in hepatic clearance are also summarized.
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Söderholm SL, Damm M, Kappe CO. Microwave-assisted derivatization procedures for gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis. Mol Divers 2010; 14:869-88. [PMID: 20225067 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-010-9242-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this review, published applications of microwave-assisted derivatization procedures for gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) are summarized. Among the broad range of analytical techniques available, GC/MS is still the method of choice for most high-throughput screening procedures in forensic/clinical toxicology, doping control and food and environmental analysis. Despite the many advantages of the GC/MS method, time-consuming derivatization steps are often required in order to obtain desirable chromatographic characteristics or to improve the stability and detectability of the target analytes. These derivatization processes typically require reaction times from 30 min up to several hours at elevated temperature. In contrast, microwave protocols have demonstrated to be able to reduce the time required for derivatization to a few minutes, and can thus very effectively shorten the overall analysis time, in particular when carried out in a high-throughput format. Herein, the literature in this field is summarized and recent experimental techniques for performing parallel GC/MS derivatization protocols are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra L Söderholm
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry (CDLMC), Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010, Graz, Austria
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Haas C, Meyer MR, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. New designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2009; 44:952-964. [PMID: 19241365 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to identify the metabolites of the new designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP) in rat urine using GC/MS techniques. Eleven metabolites of PVP could be identified suggesting the following metabolic steps: hydroxylation of the side chain followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding ketone; hydroxylation of the 2''-position of the pyrrolidine ring followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding lactam or followed by ring opening to the respective aliphatic aldehyde and further oxidation to the respective carboxylic acid; degradation of the pyrrolidine ring to the corresponding primary amine; and hydroxylation of the phenyl ring, most probably in the 4'-position. The authors' screening procedure for pyrrolidinophenones allowed the detection of PVP metabolites after application of a dose corresponding to a presumed user's dose. In addition, the involvement of nine different human cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes in the side chain hydroxylation of PVP was investigated and CYP 2B6, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4 were found to catalyze this reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Sauer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Staack RF, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. Metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-methoxypropanamine (PCMPA) in rat urine using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2008; 181:47-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2008] [Revised: 08/05/2008] [Accepted: 09/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure ionization electrospray mass spectrometry determination of “hallucinogenic designer drugs” in urine of consumers. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2008; 47:335-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2007] [Revised: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Rohanová M, Pálenícek T, Balíková M. Disposition of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) and its metabolite 4-bromo-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenethylamine in rats after subcutaneous administration. Toxicol Lett 2008; 178:29-36. [PMID: 18339493 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Revised: 01/27/2008] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The psychedelic compound 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) has appeared as an agent in drug abuse or overdose cases in humans. The human pharmacokinetics of this drug is unknown and only partial information is available on its metabolites. Our experimental study was focused on the disposition and kinetic profile of 2C-B in rats after subcutaneous administration using a GC-MS validated method. One of the major metabolites 4-bromo-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenethylamine (2H5M-BPEA) was confirmed in rat tissues of lung, brain, liver and was quantitatively evaluated as well. The disposition of 2C-B was characterized by its estimated half-life 1.1h and estimated volume of distribution 16L/kg. The lung susceptibility for drug retention and gradual temporal release parallel to the brain were ascertained. The drug penetrating the blood/brain barrier was without significant delay. 2C-B brain to serum ratio attained a maximum value of 13.9 and remained over the value of 6.5 to the end of our observation (6h after the dose). The distribution of the hydroxylated metabolite 2H5M-BPEA into the lipophilic brain tissue was less efficient in relation to the parent compound. The kinetics of the drug partitioning between blood to brain may be important for the subsequent assessment of its psychotropic or toxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miroslava Rohanová
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, 121 08 Prague 2, Czech Republic
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Ewald AH, Ehlers D, Maurer HH. Metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 390:1837-42. [PMID: 18259731 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-1917-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Revised: 01/21/2008] [Accepted: 01/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of the amphetamine-derived designer drug 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOC) in rat urine using gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric techniques. The metabolites identified indicated that DOC was metabolized by O-demethylation at position 2 or 5 of the phenyl ring partly followed by glucuronidation and/or sulfation. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis procedure using full-scan gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of DOC in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug user's dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the STA procedure described should be suitable as proof of an intake of DOC in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Ewald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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19
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Staack RF, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. Metabolism and toxicological detection of a new designer drug, N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)propanamine, in rat urine using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1186:380-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Revised: 11/01/2007] [Accepted: 11/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Staack RF, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. New designer drugs N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-ethoxyethanamine (PCEEA) and N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-methoxyethanamine (PCMEA): Studies on their metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2008; 43:305-316. [PMID: 17968862 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological detection of the phencyclidine-derived designer drugs N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-ethoxyethanamine (PCEEA) and N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-methoxyethanamine (PCMEA) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that PCEEA and PCMEA were transformed to the same metabolites by N-dealkylation and O-dealkylation partially followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to the respective carboxylic acid and hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring at different positions and combinations of those. Finally, aromatic hydroxylation of the O-dealkylated metabolites was partially followed by hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring at different positions. All metabolites were partially excreted in conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a common drug users' dose both of PCEEA and PCMEA in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism in humans, the STA should be suitable for proof of an intake of PCEEA and PCMEA in human urine, although their differentiation is not possible due to common metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Sauer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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21
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Ewald AH, Puetz M, Maurer HH. Designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (DOM, STP): involvement of the cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in formation of its main metabolite and detection of the latter in rat urine as proof of a drug intake using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 862:252-6. [PMID: 18155651 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2007] [Revised: 11/27/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (DOM, STP) is known to be extensively metabolized in various species. The current study showed that cytochrome P450 2D6 was the only isoenzyme involved in formation of the main metabolite hydroxy DOM. In addition, the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC-MS was suitable to prove an intake of a common drug users' dose of DOM by detection of hydroxy DOM in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of DOM in human urine. However, DOM and/or other metabolites such as deamino-oxo-hydroxy DOM might be the target analyte in urine of CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Ewald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Strasse 1, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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22
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Maurer HH. Chapter 12 Forensic screening with GC-MS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7192(06)06012-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
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23
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da Costa JL, Wang AY, Micke GA, Maldaner AO, Romano RL, Martins-Júnior HA, Negrini Neto O, Tavares MFM. Chemical identification of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB). Forensic Sci Int 2007; 173:130-6. [PMID: 17376619 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2006] [Revised: 02/12/2007] [Accepted: 02/15/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of synthetic drugs, generally known as designer drugs, has increased drastically in all parts of the world. Typical constituents of designer synthetic drugs are chemical substances derived from amphetamine but significant differences in effects caused and duration may result. In May, 2005, the civil state police of Sao Paulo seized thirty-one gelatinous capsules containing a very small quantity of a white powder inside (approximately 1.5 mg per capsule). This paper describes the analytical assays that were used to identify the seized material. Preliminary assays using colorimetric tests and high performance thin-layer chromatography indicated that the capsules content could be an amphetamine derivative. In the capillary zone electrophoresis assay, it was possible to observe that the analyzed material had basic characteristics. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the compound had the same molecular mass as 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) and its identity was confirmed through collision-induced dissociation (CID) experiments. Finally, the comparison of infrared sample spectrum with a spectra library provided further evidence of the DOB presence in the seized material. Although a reference standard material was not available, the information gathered from the different assays allowed the conclusion that the substance was, in fact, DOB, a substance with a powerful hallucinogenic action of proscribed use in the country and which was seized and identified for the first time in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luiz da Costa
- Instrumental Analysis Laboratory, Criminalistic Institute of Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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24
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Beránková K, Szkutová M, Balíková M. Distribution profile of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) in rats after oral and subcutaneous doses. Forensic Sci Int 2007; 170:94-9. [PMID: 17629428 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2006] [Revised: 02/27/2007] [Accepted: 03/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) is one of the potent hallucinogenic phenylalkylamines, whose ingestion has already caused several deaths reported all over the world. However, there is insufficient information on DOB properties based on controlled pharmacokinetic studies available. The aim of this study was to clarify the distribution profile of DOB and its phenolic metabolite 2-methoxy-5-hydroxy-4-bromoamphetamine (2M5H4BA) in blood and biological tissues of experimental rats. The rats were administered a 20 mg/kg dose of DOB.HCl by oral ingestion or subcutaneous injection. Plasma and brain, liver and lung tissues were collected at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 h after dosing (three animals per time point). The samples were prepared by a liquid-liquid extraction procedure and the extracts were assayed by GC-MS. After per oral application, DOB peak plasma level of 320 ng/mL was reached after one-hour post dosing as well as 2M5H4BA peak concentration of 203 ng/mL. A rapid phase of DOB absorption, 2M5H4BA formation and their tissue distribution during the first two hours after application were followed by a slow decrease rate of the elimination process until 32 h. After subcutaneous application, high plasma levels of the unchanged parent drug and relatively reduced formation of its metabolite 2M5H4BA were observed. DOB maximum plasma concentration of 1143 ng/mL was reached after one-hour post application, whereas its metabolite peak level after 8 h was 213 ng/mL. The concentration profiles of both compounds in plasma after per oral and subcutaneous administration revealed the existence of significant first pass effect after per oral administration that significantly affected DOB bioavailability. DOB tissue concentrations exceeded plasma and the highest values were found in the lungs, where drug accumulation occurred with prolonged retention till 32 h after subcutaneous dose. Although the plasma/tissue transfer was more effective for the lipophilic parent drug than for its hydroxylated metabolite 2M5H4BA, the metabolite tissue levels were significant. The hallucinogenic potential of 2M5H4BA appearing in brain remains unclear as nothing is known about its pharmacological activity at present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Beránková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 1st Medical Faculty, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
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25
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Theobald DS, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. Studies on the toxicological detection of the designer drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-β-phenethylamine (2C-B) in rat urine using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 846:374-7. [PMID: 16978931 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2006] [Revised: 08/21/2006] [Accepted: 08/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The phenethylamine-derived designer drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-beta-phenethylamine (2C-B) is known to be extensively metabolized in various species including humans. In rat urine, 2C-B was found to be excreted mainly via its metabolites. In the current study, the toxicological detection of these metabolites in the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure was examined. The STA procedure using full-scan GC-MS allowed proving an intake of a common drug abusers' dose of 2C-B by detection of the O-demethyl deaminohydroxy and two isomers of the O-demethyl metabolites in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of 2C-B in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis S Theobald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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26
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Maurer HH. Hyphenated mass spectrometric techniques-indispensable tools in clinical and forensic toxicology and in doping control. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:1399-413. [PMID: 17051522 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Hyphenated mass spectrometric techniques, particularly gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), are indispensable tools in clinical and forensic toxicology and in doping control owing to their high sensitivity and specificity. They are used for screening, library-assisted identification and quantification of drugs, poisons and their metabolites, prerequisites for competent expertise in these fields. In addition, they allow the study of metabolism of new drugs or poisons as a basis for developing screening procedures in biological matrices, most notably in urine, or toxicological risk assessment. Concepts and procedures using GC/MS and LC/MS techniques in the areas of analytical toxicology and the role of mass spectral libraries are presented and discussed in this feature article. Finally, perspectives of their future position are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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27
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Theobald DS, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-beta- phenethylamine (2C-D) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:1509-19. [PMID: 17103384 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The phenethylamine-derived designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-beta-phenethylamine (2C-D) was found to be metabolized in rats by O-demethylation at position 2 or 5 followed by N-acetylation or by deamination with oxidation to the corresponding acids or reduction to the corresponding alcohol. Furthermore, 2C-D was hydroxylated at the methyl group or deaminated followed by reduction to the corresponding alcohol or by oxidation to the corresponding acid. Most of the metabolites were excreted in conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of 2C-D in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug user's dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of 2C-D in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis S Theobald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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28
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Ewald AH, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. Designer drug 2,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA-2): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:1140-8. [PMID: 16810708 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological detection of the amphetamine-derived designer drug 2,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA-2) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that TMA-2 was metabolized by oxidative deamination to the corresponding ketone followed by reduction to the corresponding alcohol, O-demethylation followed by oxidative deamination, and finally O,O-bis-demethylation. All metabolites carrying hydroxy groups were found to be partly excreted in urine as glucuronides and/or sulfates. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction, and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection, in rat urine, of an intake of TMA-2 that corresponds to a common drug users' dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure in human urine should be suitable as proof of an intake of TMA-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Ewald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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29
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Staack RF, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. New designer drug N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-ethoxypropanamine (PCEPA): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:1014-29. [PMID: 16817170 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Studies are described on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the phencyclidine-derived designer drug N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-ethoxypropanamine (PCEPA) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that PCEPA was metabolized by N-dealkylation, O-deethylation partially followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to the corresponding carboxylic acid, hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring at different positions of PCEPA, N-dealkyl PCEPA, O-deethyl PCEPA, and of the corresponding carboxylic acids. Finally, aromatic hydroxylation of PCEPA, the corresponding carboxylic acids, and O-deethyl PCEPA, the latter partially followed by oxidation to the corresponding carboxylic acid and hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring could be observed. All metabolites were partially excreted in the conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction, and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection in rat urine of an intake of a common drug users' dose of PCEPA. Assuming a similar metabolism in humans, the STA in human urine should be suitable as proof of intake of PCEPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Sauer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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30
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Beyer J, Ehlers D, Maurer HH. Abuse of Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.): Studies on the Metabolism and the Toxicologic Detection of its Ingredients Elemicin, Myristicin, and Safrole in Rat and Human Urine Using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. Ther Drug Monit 2006; 28:568-75. [PMID: 16885726 DOI: 10.1097/00007691-200608000-00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Seeds of nutmeg are used as spice, but they are also abused because of psychotropic effects described after ingestion of large doses. It was postulated that these effects could be attributable to metabolic formation of amphetamine derivatives from the main nutmeg ingredients elemicin (EL), myristicin (MY), and safrole (SA). In a case of a suspected nutmeg abuse, neither such amphetamine derivatives nor the main nutmeg ingredients could be detected in urine. The metabolites of EL, MY, and SA were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in rat urine and their presence in human urine of the nutmeg abuser was confirmed. The identified metabolites indicated that EL, MY, and SA were once and twice hydroxylated at the side chain. In addition, EL was O-demethylated at 2 positions followed by side chain hydroxylation. MY and SA were demethylenated and subsequently methylated. In the human urine sample, the following metabolites could be identified: O-demethyl elemicin, O-demethyl dihydroxy elemicin, demethylenyl myristicin, dihydroxy myristicin, and demethylenyl safrole. As in the human urine sample, neither amphetamine derivatives nor the main nutmeg ingredients could be detected in the rat urine samples. Finally, toxicologic detection of nutmeg abuse was possible by identification of the described metabolites of the EL, MY, and SA in urine applying the authors' systematic toxicologic analysis procedure using full-scan gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction of analytes, and microwave-assisted acetylation of extracted analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Beyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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31
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Theobald DS, Pütz M, Schneider E, Maurer HH. New designer drug 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-beta-phenethylamine (2C-I): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric and capillary electrophoretic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2006; 41:872-86. [PMID: 16810648 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of the phenethylamine-derived designer drug 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-beta-phenethylamine (2C-I) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) techniques, and for a particular question, using capillary electrophoretic/mass spectrometric (CE/MS) techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that 2C-I was metabolized on the one hand by O-demethylation in position 2 and 5, respectively, followed either by N-acetylation or by deamination with subsequent oxidation to the corresponding acid or reduction to the corresponding alcohol, respectively. The latter metabolite was hydroxylated in beta-position and further oxidized to the corresponding oxo metabolite. On the other hand, 2C-I was metabolized by deamination with subsequent oxidation to the corresponding acid or reduction to the corresponding alcohol, respectively. 2C-I and most of its metabolites were partially excreted in conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of 2C-I in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug users' dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of 2C-I in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis S Theobald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Saarland, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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