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Cucinotta L, Cannizzaro F, Paolini M, Roncone A, Camin F, Bontempo L, Larcher R, Sciarrone D, Mondello L. From grape to wine: A thorough compound specific isotopic, enantiomeric and quali-quantitative investigation by means of gas chromatographic analysis. J Chromatogr A 2024; 1730:465149. [PMID: 38991602 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2024.465149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
In this study, multiple analytical approaches, including simultaneous enantiomeric and isotopic analysis, were employed to thoroughly investigate the volatile fraction in Moscato giallo grape berries and wines. For the qualitative and quantitative profiling, a fast GC-QqQ/MS approach was successfully utilized. However, prior to isotopic analysis, the extracts underwent an additional concentration step, necessitating an assessment of isotopic fractionation during the concentration process. Once the absence of carbon isotopic fractionation was confirmed, this research aimed to develop a suitable gas chromatographic method for the simultaneous detection of both enantiomeric and isotopic ratios of target monoterpenoids in Moscato giallo samples. To address the limitations associated with a one-dimensional approach, multidimensional gas chromatography was employed to enhance separation before IRMS and qMS detections. Utilizing a Deans switch transfer device, the coupling of an apolar column in the first dimension and a chiral cyclodextrin-based stationary phase in the second dimension proved effective for this purpose. The data obtained from the analysis of Moscato giallo samples allowed for the assessment of natural isotopic and enantiomeric distributions in grapes and wines for the first time in the literature. Significant enantiomeric excesses were observed for the target terpenoids investigated. Regarding isotopic distribution, a consistent trend was observed for all detected target terpenols, including the linalool enantiomers. To date, this study represents the first investigation of simultaneous δ13C and chiral investigation of the main terpenoids in oenological products in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Cucinotta
- Messina Institute of Technology c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy; Fondazione Edmund Mach, via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige 38010, Italy
| | - Francesca Cannizzaro
- Messina Institute of Technology c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy
| | - Mauro Paolini
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige 38010, Italy
| | - Alberto Roncone
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige 38010, Italy
| | - Federica Camin
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige 38010, Italy; Center Agriculture Food Environment (C3A), University of Trento, Via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige, TN 38010, Italy
| | - Luana Bontempo
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige 38010, Italy
| | - Roberto Larcher
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, via Mach 1, San Michele all'Adige 38010, Italy
| | - Danilo Sciarrone
- Messina Institute of Technology c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy.
| | - Luigi Mondello
- Messina Institute of Technology c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy; Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Messina Institute of Technology c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy
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Paolini M, Roncone A, Cucinotta L, Sciarrone D, Mondello L, Camin F, Moser S, Larcher R, Bontempo L. Aromatic Characterisation of Moscato Giallo by GC-MS/MS and Validation of Stable Isotopic Ratio Analysis of the Major Volatile Compounds. Biomolecules 2024; 14:710. [PMID: 38927113 PMCID: PMC11201454 DOI: 10.3390/biom14060710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2024] [Revised: 06/09/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Among the Moscato grapes, Moscato Giallo is a winegrape variety characterised by a high content of free and glycosylated monoterpenoids, which gives wines very intense notes of ripe fruit and flowers. The aromatic bouquet of Moscato Giallo is strongly influenced by the high concentration of linalool, geraniol, linalool oxides, limonene, α-terpineol, citronellol, hotrienol, diendiols, trans/cis-8-hydroxy linalool, geranic acid and myrcene, that give citrus, rose, and peach notes. Except for quali-quantitative analysis, no investigations regarding the isotopic values of the target volatile compounds in grapes and wines are documented in the literature. Nevertheless, the analysis of the stable isotope ratio represents a modern and powerful tool used by the laboratories responsible for official consumer protection, for food quality and genuineness assessment. To this aim, the aromatic compounds extracted from grapes and wine were analysed both by GC-MS/MS, to define the aroma profiles, and by GC-C/Py-IRMS, for a preliminary isotope compound-specific investigation. Seventeen samples of Moscato Giallo grapes were collected during the harvest season in 2021 from two Italian regions renowned for the cultivation of this aromatic variety, Trentino Alto Adige and Veneto, and the corresponding wines were produced at micro-winery scale. The GC-MS/MS analysis confirmed the presence of the typical terpenoids both in glycosylated and free forms, responsible for the characteristic aroma of the Moscato Giallo variety, while the compound-specific isotope ratio analysis allowed us to determine the carbon (δ13C) and hydrogen (δ2H) isotopic signatures of the major volatile compounds for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Paolini
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
| | - Alberto Roncone
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
| | - Lorenzo Cucinotta
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
- Messina Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, 98168 Messina, Italy; (D.S.); (L.M.)
| | - Danilo Sciarrone
- Messina Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, 98168 Messina, Italy; (D.S.); (L.M.)
| | - Luigi Mondello
- Messina Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, 98168 Messina, Italy; (D.S.); (L.M.)
- Chromaleont s.r.l., Messina Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Former Veterinary School, University of Messina, Viale G. Palatucci snc, 98168 Messina, Italy
| | - Federica Camin
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
- Center Agriculture Food Environment (C3A), University of Trento, Via Mach 1, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, Italy
| | - Sergio Moser
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
| | - Roberto Larcher
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
| | - Luana Bontempo
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (A.R.); (L.C.); (F.C.); (S.M.); (R.L.); (L.B.)
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Gallo A, Roman T, Paolini M, Tonidandel L, Leonardelli A, Celotti E, Nardin T, Natolino A, Cappello N, Larcher R. Influence of flash heating and aspergillopepsin I supplementation on must and wine attributes of aromatic varieties. Food Res Int 2024; 186:114332. [PMID: 38729715 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The protein instability with haze formation represents one of the main faults occurring in white and rosé wines. Among the various solutions industrially proposed, aspergillopepsin I (AP-I) supplementation coupled with must heating (60-75 °C) has been recently approved by OIV and the European Commission for ensuring protein stability of wines. This study investigates the impact of AP-I either applied independently or in combination with flash pasteurization on the chemical composition of grape must and wines derived from Sauvignon Blanc and Gewürztraminer. The efficacy on protein stability of a complete treatment combining heat (70 °C) and AP-I (HP) was confirmed through heat test and bentonite requirement, although no differences were observed between must heating and HP treatments. However, high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of unstable pathogenesis-related proteins revealed that AP-I supplementation reduced chitinases and thaumatin-like proteins compared to the non-enzymed samples, with and without must heating. Amino acid increase was reported only in HP musts, particularly in Sauvignon Blanc. The concentration of yeast-derived aroma compounds in Gewürztraminer wines was increased by must heating; compared to controls, flash pasteurization rose the overall acetate esters content of 85 % and HP of 43 %, mostly due to isoamyl acetate. However, heat treatments -with or without AP-I- reduced terpenes up to 68 %. Despite the different aroma profiles, no differences were observed for any descriptor for both varieties in wine tasting, and only a slight decrease trend was observed for the floral intensity and the typicality descriptors in heated wines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adelaide Gallo
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Tomas Roman
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy.
| | - Mauro Paolini
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Loris Tonidandel
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Andrea Leonardelli
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Emilio Celotti
- Università degli Studi di Udine-Dipartimento di Scienze Agroalimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Via delle Scienze 206, Udine, Italy
| | - Tiziana Nardin
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Andrea Natolino
- Università degli Studi di Udine-Dipartimento di Scienze Agroalimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Via delle Scienze 206, Udine, Italy
| | - Nicola Cappello
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Roberto Larcher
- Fondazione Edmund Mach-Technology Transfer Center, via Edmund Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all'Adige, Italy
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Rodrigues M, Forestan C, Ravazzolo L, Hugueney P, Baltenweck R, Rasori A, Cardillo V, Carraro P, Malagoli M, Brizzolara S, Quaggiotti S, Porro D, Meggio F, Bonghi C, Battista F, Ruperti B. Metabolic and Molecular Rearrangements of Sauvignon Blanc ( Vitis vinifera L.) Berries in Response to Foliar Applications of Specific Dry Yeast. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3423. [PMID: 37836164 PMCID: PMC10574919 DOI: 10.3390/plants12193423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Dry yeast extracts (DYE) are applied to vineyards to improve aromatic and secondary metabolic compound content and wine quality; however, systematic information on the underpinning molecular mechanisms is lacking. This work aimed to unravel, through a systematic approach, the metabolic and molecular responses of Sauvignon Blanc berries to DYE treatments. To accomplish this, DYE spraying was performed in a commercial vineyard for two consecutive years. Berries were sampled at several time points after the treatment, and grapes were analyzed for sugars, acidity, free and bound aroma precursors, amino acids, and targeted and untargeted RNA-Seq transcriptional profiles. The results obtained indicated that the DYE treatment did not interfere with the technological ripening parameters of sugars and acidity. Some aroma precursors, including cys-3MH and GSH-3MH, responsible for the typical aromatic nuances of Sauvignon Blanc, were stimulated by the treatment during both vintages. The levels of amino acids and the global RNA-seq transcriptional profiles indicated that DYE spraying upregulated ROS homeostatic and thermotolerance genes, as well as ethylene and jasmonic acid biosynthetic genes, and activated abiotic and biotic stress responses. Overall, the data suggested that the DYE reduced berry oxidative stress through the regulation of specific subsets of metabolic and hormonal pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Rodrigues
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Cristian Forestan
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Laura Ravazzolo
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Philippe Hugueney
- National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), SVQV UMR A1131, University of Strasbourg, 67081 Strasbourg, France; (P.H.); (R.B.)
| | - Raymonde Baltenweck
- National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), SVQV UMR A1131, University of Strasbourg, 67081 Strasbourg, France; (P.H.); (R.B.)
| | - Angela Rasori
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Valerio Cardillo
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Pietro Carraro
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Mario Malagoli
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Stefano Brizzolara
- Crop Science Research Center, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56127 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Silvia Quaggiotti
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
| | - Duilio Porro
- Technology Transfer Centre, Edmund Mach Foundation, Via E. Mach 1, 38010 San Michele all ‘Adige, Italy;
| | - Franco Meggio
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
- Interdepartmental Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology (CIRVE), University of Padova, Via XXVIII Aprile 14, Conegliano, 31015 Treviso, Italy
| | - Claudio Bonghi
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
- Interdepartmental Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology (CIRVE), University of Padova, Via XXVIII Aprile 14, Conegliano, 31015 Treviso, Italy
| | | | - Benedetto Ruperti
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Padova, Italy; (M.R.); (L.R.); (A.R.); (V.C.); (P.C.); (M.M.); (S.Q.); (F.M.); (C.B.)
- Interdepartmental Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology (CIRVE), University of Padova, Via XXVIII Aprile 14, Conegliano, 31015 Treviso, Italy
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Khatri PK, Paolini M, Larcher R, Ziller L, Alina Magdas D, Marincas O, Roncone A, Bontempo L. Validation of gas chromatographic methods for lavender essential oil authentication based on volatile organic compounds and stable isotope ratios. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.108343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Campos-Arguedas F, Sarrailhé G, Nicolle P, Dorais M, Brereton NJB, Pitre FE, Pedneault K. Different Temperature and UV Patterns Modulate Berry Maturation and Volatile Compounds Accumulation in Vitis sp. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:862259. [PMID: 35845654 PMCID: PMC9280473 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.862259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Volatile compounds (VCs) in grapevine berries play an important role in wine quality; however, such compounds and vine development can be sensitive to environmental conditions. Due to this sensitivity, changes in temperature patterns due to global warming are likely to further impact grape production and berry composition. The aim of this study was to determine the possible effects of different growing-degree day accumulation patterns on berry ripening and composition at harvest. An experimental field was conducted using Vitis sp. L'Acadie blanc, in Nova Scotia, Canada. Using on-the-row mini-greenhouses, moderate temperature increase and reduced ultraviolet (UV) exposure were triggered in grapevines during pre-veraison (inflorescence to the beginning of berry softening), post-veraison (berry softening to full maturity), and whole season (inflorescence to full maturity), while controls were left without treatment. Free and bound VCs were extracted from berries sampled at three different phenological stages between veraison and maturity before analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Berries from grapevines exposed to higher temperatures during early berry development (pre-veraison and whole) accumulated significantly higher concentrations of benzene derivatives 2-phenylethanol and benzyl alcohol at harvest, but lower concentrations of hydroxy-methoxy-substituted volatile phenols, terpenes, and C13-norisoprenoids than the control berries. These results illustrate the importance of different environmental interactions in berry composition and suggest that temperature could potentially modulate phenylpropanoid and mevalonate metabolism in developing berries. This study provides insights into the relationships between abiotic conditions and secondary metabolism in grapevine and highlights the significance of early developmental stages on berry quality at harvest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Campos-Arguedas
- Department of Science, Université Sainte-Anne, Church Point, NS, Canada
- Centre de Recherche et d'Innovation sur les Végétaux, Département de Phytologie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Guillaume Sarrailhé
- Department of Science, Université Sainte-Anne, Church Point, NS, Canada
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal et Jardin botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Paméla Nicolle
- Department of Science, Université Sainte-Anne, Church Point, NS, Canada
| | - Martine Dorais
- Centre de Recherche et d'Innovation sur les Végétaux, Département de Phytologie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Nicholas J. B. Brereton
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal et Jardin botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Frederic E. Pitre
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal et Jardin botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Karine Pedneault
- Department of Science, Université Sainte-Anne, Church Point, NS, Canada
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal et Jardin botanique de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Measurement of the Effect of Accelerated Aging on the Aromatic Compounds of Gewürztraminer and Teroldego Wines, Using a SPE-GC-MS/MS Protocol. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12020180. [PMID: 35208254 PMCID: PMC8876733 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12020180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowing in detail how the white and red wine aroma compounds behave under various storage conditions and especially at high temperature is important in order to understand the changes occurring to their sensorial character during the shelf life. The initial aim of this work was to develop and validate a fast, modern, robust, and comprehensive protocol for the quantification of 64 primary, secondary, and tertiary volatile compounds by using solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges in sample preparation and fast GC-MS/MS (gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay) in analysis. The protocol was applied to a study of the behavior of seven Gewürztraminer and seven Teroldego wines stored in anoxia at 50 °C for 2.5 and 5 weeks. The results demonstrated a sharp decrease of the main linear terpenes linalool, geraniol, and nerol and the consequent increase of the cyclic ones, such as α-terpineol and 1,8-cineole; the increase of the C13-norisoprenoids 1,1,6,-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronapthalene (TDN), and β-damascenone and the C10 norisoprenoid safranal; the hydrolysis of acetates and linear esters; and the increase of some branched-chain esters. In red wines, a moderate increase was observed for some lactones. Some unwanted compounds, such as 2-aminoacetophenone (2-AAP), showed a notable increase in some Gewürztraminer wines, exceeding the olfactory threshold.
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