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Alatrash R, Herrera BB. The Adaptive Immune Response against Bunyavirales. Viruses 2024; 16:483. [PMID: 38543848 PMCID: PMC10974645 DOI: 10.3390/v16030483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The Bunyavirales order includes at least fourteen families with diverse but related viruses, which are transmitted to vertebrate hosts by arthropod or rodent vectors. These viruses are responsible for an increasing number of outbreaks worldwide and represent a threat to public health. Infection in humans can be asymptomatic, or it may present with a range of conditions from a mild, febrile illness to severe hemorrhagic syndromes and/or neurological complications. There is a need to develop safe and effective vaccines, a process requiring better understanding of the adaptive immune responses involved during infection. This review highlights the most recent findings regarding T cell and antibody responses to the five Bunyavirales families with known human pathogens (Peribunyaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, and Arenaviridae). Future studies that define and characterize mechanistic correlates of protection against Bunyavirales infections or disease will help inform the development of effective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Alatrash
- Rutgers Global Health Institute, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases and Child Health Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Bobby Brooke Herrera
- Rutgers Global Health Institute, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases and Child Health Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
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Doores KJ. Humoral immunity to phlebovirus infection. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2023; 1530:23-31. [PMID: 37936483 PMCID: PMC10952791 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
Phleboviruses are zoonotic pathogens found in parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America and cause disease symptoms ranging from self-limiting febrile illness to severe disease, including hemorrhagic diathesis, encephalitis, and ocular pathologies. There are currently no approved preventative vaccines against phlebovirus infection or antivirals for the treatment of the disease. Here, we discuss the roles of neutralizing antibodies in phlebovirus infection, the antigenic targets present on the mature polyproteins Gn and Gc, progress in vaccine development, and the prospects of identifying conserved neutralizing epitopes across multiple phleboviruses. Further research in this area will pave the way for the rational design of pan-phlebovirus vaccines that will protect against both known phleboviruses but also newly emerging phleboviruses that may have pandemic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie J. Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, King's College LondonGuy's HospitalLondonUK
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Identification of a Neutralizing Epitope on TOSV Gn Glycoprotein. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9080924. [PMID: 34452049 PMCID: PMC8402642 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9080924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging and re-emerging viral infections have been an important public health problem in recent years. We focused our attention on Toscana virus (TOSV), an emergent neurotropic negative-strand RNA virus of the Phenuiviridae family. The mechanisms of protection against phlebovirus natural infection are not known; however, it is supposed that a virus-neutralizing antibody response against viral glycoproteins would be useful to block the first stages of infection. By using an improved memory B cell immortalization method, we obtained a panel of human mAbs which reacted with TOSV antigens. We identified three epitopes of TOSV Gn glycoproteins by neutralizing mAbs using synthetic peptide arrays on membrane support (SPOT synthesis). These epitopes, separated in primary structure, might be exposed near one another as a conformational epitope in their native structure. In vivo studies were conducted to evaluate the humoral response elicited in mice immunized with the identified peptides. The results underlined the hypothesis that the first two peptides located in the NH2 terminus could form a conformational epitope, while the third, located near the transmembrane sequence in the carboxyl terminus, was necessary to strengthen neutralizing activity. Our results emphasize the importance of identifying neutralizing epitopes shared among the various phleboviruses, which could be exploited for the development of a potential epitope-based diagnostic assay or a polyvalent protective vaccine against different phleboviruses.
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Morini S, Calzolari M, Rossini G, Pascarelli N, Porcellini A, Randi V, Re MC, Albieri A, Bonilauri P, Bellini R, Ayhan N, Charrel R, Varani S. Detection of Specific Antibodies against Toscana Virus among Blood Donors in Northeastern Italy and Correlation with Sand Fly Abundance in 2014. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8020145. [PMID: 31973058 PMCID: PMC7074719 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Toscana virus (TOSV) is a Phlebovirus transmitted by phlebotomine sand flies and is an important etiological agent of summer meningitis in the Mediterranean basin. Since TOSV infection is often asymptomatic, we evaluated the seroprevalence in blood donors (BDs) in the Bologna and Ferrara provinces (Northeastern Italy)-the areas with the highest and lowest numbers of TOSV neuroinvasive cases in the region, respectively. A total of 1208 serum samples from BDs were collected in April-June 2014 and evaluated for the presence of specific TOSV-IgG by ELISA. The IgG-reactive samples were confirmed by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IIF) and by microneutralization test (MN). Serum samples were defined as positive for anti-TOSV IgG when reactive by ELISA and by at least one second-level test; TOSV seroprevalence was 6.8% in the Bologna province, while no circulation of TOSV was detected in the Ferrara province. Sand fly abundance in 2014 was also estimated by a geographic information system using a generalized linear model applied to a series of explanatory variables. TOSV seroprevalence rate was strongly associated with the sand fly abundance index in each municipality, pointing out the strong association between sand fly abundance and human exposure to TOSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Morini
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
| | - Mattia Calzolari
- Laboratory of Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini” (IZLER), 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (M.C.); (P.B.)
| | - Giada Rossini
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
| | - Nadia Pascarelli
- Centro Regionale Sangue Emilia-Romagna, Maggiore Hospital, 40133 Bologna, Italy; (N.P.); (A.P.); (V.R.)
| | - Andrea Porcellini
- Centro Regionale Sangue Emilia-Romagna, Maggiore Hospital, 40133 Bologna, Italy; (N.P.); (A.P.); (V.R.)
| | - Vanda Randi
- Centro Regionale Sangue Emilia-Romagna, Maggiore Hospital, 40133 Bologna, Italy; (N.P.); (A.P.); (V.R.)
| | - Maria Carla Re
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Alessandro Albieri
- Department of Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Centro Agricoltura Ambiente ‘G. Nicoli’, 40014 Crevalcore, Italy; (A.A.); (R.B.)
| | - Paolo Bonilauri
- Laboratory of Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini” (IZLER), 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (M.C.); (P.B.)
| | - Romeo Bellini
- Department of Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Centro Agricoltura Ambiente ‘G. Nicoli’, 40014 Crevalcore, Italy; (A.A.); (R.B.)
| | - Nazli Ayhan
- Unité des Virus Emergents (UVE: Aix Marseille Univ, IRD 190, INSERM 1207, IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France; (N.A.); (R.C.)
| | - Remi Charrel
- Unité des Virus Emergents (UVE: Aix Marseille Univ, IRD 190, INSERM 1207, IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France; (N.A.); (R.C.)
| | - Stefania Varani
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-051-2143013
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Yeom G, Kang J, Jang H, Nam HY, Kim MG, Park CJ. Development of DNA Aptamers against the Nucleocapsid Protein of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus for Diagnostic Application: Catalytic Signal Amplification using Replication Protein A-Conjugated Liposomes. Anal Chem 2019; 91:13772-13779. [PMID: 31602980 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Most prevalent infectious diseases worldwide are caused by mediators such as insects and characterized by high mortality and morbidity, thereby creating a global public health concern. Therefore, a sensitive, selective detection platform for diagnosing diseases in the early stages of infection is needed to prevent disease spread and to protect public health. Here, we developed novel DNA aptamers specific to the nucleocapsid protein (NP) of the severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) virus and synthesized ssDNA-binding protein-conjugated liposomes encapsulated with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) for application in a simple and universal platform. This platform achieved highly sensitive detection of the NP by measuring the colorimetric signal following lysis of the HRP encapsulated liposomes, mediated by a mixture of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine and H2O2 solution. The limit of detection was 0.009 ng·mL-1, and NP was successfully detected in diluted human serum with a high recovery rate. Moreover, this method was specific and did not exhibit cross-reactivity among NPs of other virus types. These results demonstrated the efficacy of the proposed method as a highly sensitive, specific, and universal diagnostic tool for potential application in monitoring of the early stages of infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyuho Yeom
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry , Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) , 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro , Buk-gu, Gwangju , 61005 , Republic of Korea
| | - Juyoung Kang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry , Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) , 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro , Buk-gu, Gwangju , 61005 , Republic of Korea
| | - Hyungjun Jang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry , Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) , 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro , Buk-gu, Gwangju , 61005 , Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Yeon Nam
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry , Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) , 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro , Buk-gu, Gwangju , 61005 , Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Gon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry , Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) , 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro , Buk-gu, Gwangju , 61005 , Republic of Korea
| | - Chin-Ju Park
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry , Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) , 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro , Buk-gu, Gwangju , 61005 , Republic of Korea
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Demurtas OC, Massa S, Illiano E, De Martinis D, Chan PKS, Di Bonito P, Franconi R. Antigen Production in Plant to Tackle Infectious Diseases Flare Up: The Case of SARS. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:54. [PMID: 26904039 PMCID: PMC4742786 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a dangerous infection with pandemic potential. It emerged in 2002 and its aetiological agent, the SARS Coronavirus (SARS-CoV), crossed the species barrier to infect humans, showing high morbidity and mortality rates. No vaccines are currently licensed for SARS-CoV and important efforts have been performed during the first outbreak to develop diagnostic tools. Here we demonstrate the transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana of two important antigenic determinants of the SARS-CoV, the nucleocapsid protein (N) and the membrane protein (M) using a virus-derived vector or agro-infiltration, respectively. For the M protein, this is the first description of production in plants, while for plant-derived N protein we demonstrate that it is recognized by sera of patients from the SARS outbreak in Hong Kong in 2003. The availability of recombinant N and M proteins from plants opens the way to further evaluation of their potential utility for the development of diagnostic and protection/therapy tools to be quickly manufactured, at low cost and with minimal risk, to face potential new highly infectious SARS-CoV outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia C. Demurtas
- Department of Sustainability, Biotechnology Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic DevelopmentRome, Italy
| | - Silvia Massa
- Department of Sustainability, Biotechnology Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic DevelopmentRome, Italy
| | - Elena Illiano
- Department of Sustainability, Biomedical Technology Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic DevelopmentRome, Italy
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilan, Italy
| | - Domenico De Martinis
- International Relations Office, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic DevelopmentRome, Italy
| | - Paul K. S. Chan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales HospitalHong Kong, China
- Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales HospitalHong Kong, China
| | - Paola Di Bonito
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-Mediated DiseasesRome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Rosella Franconi, ; Paola Di Bonito,
| | - Rosella Franconi
- Department of Sustainability, Biomedical Technology Laboratory, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic DevelopmentRome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Rosella Franconi, ; Paola Di Bonito,
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Ergunay K, Kocak Tufan Z, Bulut C, Kinikli S, Demiroz AP, Ozkul A. Antibody responses and viral load in patients with Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever: a comprehensive analysis during the early stages of the infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 79:31-6. [PMID: 24630756 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study was performed to assess viral load, viral nucleocapsid (N), and glycoprotein precursor (GPC) antibodies in consecutive samples obtained from Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever patients to reveal viral replication kinetics and antiviral immune responses during the early stages of the infection. Among 116 samples from 20 individuals, 43.9% and 76.7% were positive for viral RNA and IgM/IgG antibodies, respectively, whereas both markers could be detected in 22.4%. Mean duration of viremia was 3 days (range: 1-6 days). N-IgM antibodies were identified as the initial serological marker during the infection, becoming detectable in a median of 2-3 days after disease onset, followed by GPC-IgM (4-6 days) and IgG antibodies (5-6 days). Clearance of viremia followed or coincided N-IgM response. Partial S gene sequences amplified in viremic patients were identical or closely related to previously characterized strains and grouped within European lineage I group II viruses via neighbor-joining analysis without significant amino acid substitutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koray Ergunay
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Virology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Zeliha Kocak Tufan
- Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Department, Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Ankara Ataturk Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Cemal Bulut
- Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Department, MOH Ankara Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sami Kinikli
- Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Department, MOH Ankara Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ali Pekcan Demiroz
- Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Department, MOH Ankara Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Aykut Ozkul
- Department of Virology, Ankara University; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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Ergünay K, Litzba N, Lo MM, Aydoğan S, Saygan MB, Us D, Weidmann M, Niedrig M. Performance of various commercial assays for the detection of Toscana virus antibodies. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:781-7. [PMID: 21395410 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sandfly fever virus (SFV) serotypes sandfly fever Naples virus, sandfly fever Sicilian virus, and sandfly fever Cyprus virus cause febrile diseases, whereas Toscana virus (TOSV) is responsible for aseptic meningoencephalitis. Diagnosis and surveillance of TOSV depend heavily on virus serology, and various commercial assays utilizing various antigen sources and formats have been available. The aim of this study was to perform comparative evaluation of commercially available serological assays for anti-TOSV immunoglobulins. MATERIALS AND METHODS A collection of 120 sera from healthy blood donors from an endemic region, previously identified to be reactive for antibodies against various SFV serotypes by indirect immunofluorescence test (IIFT), was reevaluated for IgG/IgM via IIFT, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and an immunoblot assay manufactured by Euroimmun, Diesse, and Mikrogen, respectively. Virus neutralization test (VNT) was performed for 99 sera using standard TOSV, sandfly fever Sicilian virus, and sandfly fever Naples virus strains. RESULTS A total of 89 samples (74.2%) were reactive for TOSV IgG in at least one of the commercial assays, and 31 samples (31.3%) were reactive in VNT for various SFV serotypes. Average percentage agreements among commercial assays and between VNT and the commercial assays were noted as 57.8% and 62.6%, respectively. No significant correlation between assay results and VNT titers was observed. SFV IgM antibodies were detected in a total of eight samples (6.7%) via IIFT, which were nonreactive in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and VNT. DISCUSSION Commercial diagnostic immunoassays displayed slight to fair agreement for TOSV IgG as assessed via kappa and percentage agreement values. The results could only be confirmed via virus neutralization in a portion of the samples, and overall agreement between the commercial assays and VNT was slight. Commercial assays such as immunoblot can be used in addition to VNT for confirmation of TOSV exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koray Ergünay
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Virology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
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Immunization with Toscana virus N-Gc proteins protects mice against virus challenge. Virology 2008; 375:521-8. [PMID: 18355889 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2007] [Revised: 12/21/2007] [Accepted: 02/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Toscana virus (TOSV) is an emerging virus, circulating in the Mediterranean area, that is responsible for aseptic meningitis, meningoencephalitis, and encephalitis. The development of a vaccine that could provide complete protection from TOSV infection is needed. In this study we investigated the capacity of TOSV structural proteins, nucleocapsid protein N and the two Gc and Gn glycoproteins, produced as recombinant proteins, in an animal model. In particular, we investigated their role in inducing specific and protective immune responses against virus infection. Mice were immunized intraperitoneally using TOSV antigens singly or in combination. The results show that only the N-Gc combination was able to protect 100% of animals from a lethal challenge with a neurovirulent strain of TOSV. This potential vaccine induces high serum antibody titres with neutralizing activity and it is safe for animals. Moreover, immunization induces a virus specific cell-mediated immune response, in particular a CD8+ T cell response associated with a marked expression of interferon gamma. These results indicate that the N+Gc viral antigen combination could be useful for future development of a vaccine controlling the spread of this emerging virus that could pose a new threat for humans.
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Abstract
Toscana virus (Bunyaviridae family, Phlebovirus genus) is a sandfly fever virus responsible for human neurological infections. Sandfly viruses are transmitted by insect vectors (Phlebotomus species) and the infection is present in climatic areas that allow the life cycle of the vector. The arthropode-borne Toscana virus is the etiologic agent of meningitis, meningoencephalitis, and encephalitis. The frequency of this neuropathic infection increases in the summer months, peaking in August in the endemic Mediterranean areas (Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Cyprus). Infection diagnosis is carried out by molecular assays and immunoenzymatic tests, which are rapid and sensitive. Recent studies have investigated the antigenic properties of the viral proteins (nucleoprotein N and surface glycoproteins G1 and G2), to better understand their immunogentic role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Valassina
- Department of Molecular Biology, Section of Virology, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
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Dionisio D, Esperti F, Vivarelli A, Valassina M. Epidemiological, clinical and laboratory aspects of sandfly fever. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2003; 16:383-8. [PMID: 14501989 DOI: 10.1097/00001432-200310000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Sandfly fever viruses are still a significant health problem in many regions of the world, such as Africa, the Mediterranean basin, the Middle East, and Central Asia. This review provides an update on the advances in knowledge about epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory aspects of infections caused by Toscana, Sicilian and Naples viruses. RECENT FINDINGS Diagnosis of Toscana virus infection has been facilitated by new molecular methods and by immunoenzymatic tests based on the recombinant nucleoprotein. Gene analysis has allowed identification of circulating Toscana variants possibly involved in the protean pathomorphism and extreme variability of the clinical picture. New attention has been addressed to the antigenic properties of the viral proteins (the nucleoprotein N and the surface glycoproteins G1 and G2), in order to understand their immunogenetic role. High genetic divergence within the serocomplexes belonging to each of the Sicilian and the Naples viruses has suggested that infection with one genotype may not completely immunize against infection with all other genotypes in a given serocomplex. These findings could serve as a basis for vaccine development and may account for reports of multiple episodes of sandfly fever in the same host. Recently, the performance of analysis models based on weather data and reported vector surveys has allowed the prediction of the risk of acquiring sandfly infection in the endemic geographic areas. SUMMARY Recent developments include a better knowledge of the epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory aspects of sandfly infection, while the search for effective drugs and vaccines is still in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Dionisio
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Il Ceppo Hospital of Pistoia, Pistoia, Italy.
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