Epidemiology and clinical features of rotavirus, adenovirus, and astrovirus infections and coinfections in children with acute gastroenteritis prior to rotavirus vaccine introduction in Meerut, North India

Respiratory Virus-Specific and Time-Dependent Interference of Adenovirus Type 2, SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza Virus H1N1pdm09 During Viral Dual Co-Infection and Superinfection In Vitro

BACKGROUND

Understanding the interference patterns of respiratory viruses could be important for shedding light on potential strategies to combat these human infectious agents.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the possible interactions between adenovirus type 2 (AdV2), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and influenza A/H1N1 pandemic (H1N1pdm09) using the A549 cell line.

METHODS

Single infections, co-infections, and superinfections (at 3 and 24 h after the first virus infection) were performed by varying the multiplicity of infection (MOI). Virus replication kinetics and the mRNA expression of IFN-α, IL-1α and IL-6 were assessed by real-time qPCR.

RESULTS

Co-infection experiments showed different growth dynamics, depending on the presence of the specific virus and time. AdV2 replication remained stable or possibly enhanced in the presence of co-infection with each of the two H1N1pdm09 and SARS-CoV-2 viruses used. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 replication was facilitated by H1N1pdm09 but hindered by AdV2, indicating possible different interactions. Finally, H1N1pdm09 replication exhibited variably effectiveness in the presence of AdV2 and SARS-CoV-2. Superinfection experiments showed that the replication of all viruses was affected by time and MOI. The mRNA expression of IFN-α, IL-1α and IL-6 showed divergent results depending on the virus used and the time of infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Further investigation of co-infection or superinfection may be helpful in understanding the potential relationship involved in the outcome of viral respiratory infection in the human population.

Coinfection of human adenovirus and recombinant human astrovirus in a case of acute gastroenteritis: A report from China

Diarrhea is one of the major public health issues worldwide. Although the infections of individual enteric virus have been extensively studied, elucidation of the coinfection involving multiple viruses is still limited. In this study, we identified the coinfection of human adenovirus (HAdV) and human astrovirus (HAstV) in a child with acute gastroenteritis, analyzed their genotypes and molecular evolution characteristics. The sample was collected and identified using RT-PCR and subjected to whole-genome sequencing on the NovaSeq (Illumina) platform. Obtained sequences were assembled into the complete genome of HAdV and the ORF1 of HAstV. We conducted phylogenetic analysis using IQ-TREE software and conducted recombination analysis with the Recombination Detection Program. The sequenced HAdV was confirmed to be genotype 41, and was genetically close to some European strains. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the HAstV was genetically close to both HAstV-2 and HAstV-4 and was different from the genotype prevalent in Shenzhen before. The recombination analysis confirmed that the sequenced HAstV strain is a recombinant of HAstV-2 and HAstV-4. Our analysis has shown that the strains in this coinfection are both uncommon variants in this geographical region, instead of dominant subtypes that have prevailed for years. This study presents a coinfection of HAdV and HAstV and conducts an evolutionary analysis on involved viruses, which reveals the genetic diversity of epidemic strains in Southern China and offers valuable insights into vaccine and medical research.

Epidemiology and molecular detection of human adenovirus and non-polio enterovirus in fecal samples of children with acute gastroenteritis: A five-year surveillance in northern Brazil

Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is a common pediatric infection that remains a significant cause of childhood morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in low-income regions. Thus, the objective of this study was to detect human adenovirus (HAdV) and non-polio enterovirus (NPEV) in fecal samples from the Gastroenteritis Surveillance Network, and to identify circulating strains by nucleotide sequencing. A total of 801 fecal samples were tested using qPCR/RT-qPCR, and 657 (82.0%) were inoculated into HEp-2C and RD cell lines. The HAdV and NPEV positivity rates obtained using qPCR/RT-qPCR were 31.7% (254/801) and 10.5% (84/801), respectively, with 5.4% (43/801) co-detection. Cytopathic effect was observed in 9.6% (63/657) of patients, 2.7% (18/657) associated with HAdV, and 6.2% (41/657) associated with NPEV after testing by ICC-PCR. A comparison of the two methodologies demonstrated an agreement of 93.5% for EVNP and 64.4% for HAdV. These two viruses were detected throughout the study period, with HAdV positivity rates ranging from 41% in Amapá to 18% in Pará. The NEPV varied from 18% in Pará/Rondônia to 3% in Acre. The most affected age group was over 60 months for both HAdV and NPEV. Samples previously positive for rotavirus and norovirus, which did not show a major difference in the presence or absence of diarrhea, fever, and vomiting, were excluded from the clinical analyses of these two viruses. These viruses circulated over five years, with a few months of absence, mainly during the months corresponding to the waves of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Brazil. Five HAdV species were identified (A, B, C, D, and F), with a greater predominance of HAdV-F41 (56.5%) followed by HAdV-C (15.2%). Three NPEV species (A, B, and C) were detected, with serotypes E14 (19.3%) and CVA-24 (16.1%) being the most prevalent. The present study revealed a high diversity of NPEV and HAdV types circulating in children with AGE symptoms in the northern region of Brazil.

Detection and Molecular Characterization of Animal Adenovirus and Astrovirus from Western Maharashtra, India

Astroviruses (AstV) and adenoviruses (AdV) are associated with diarrhoea in young animals. However, the epidemiology and genetic diversity of AstVs and AdVs in animals is not well studied. Hence, the present study was conducted to detect and characterize AstVs and AdVs in calves, piglets and puppies from Western Maharashtra, India. Out of the processed porcine (48), canine (80), and bovine (65) faecal samples, the porcine AstV (PAstV), bovine AstV (BAstV), canine AstV (CAstV), and porcine AdV (PAdV) were detected in 12.5%, 7.69%, 3.75% and 4.1% of samples, respectively. In the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase region-based phylogenetic analysis, the detected BAstV strains grouped with MAstV-28, MAstV-33, and MAstV-35, CAstV strains belonged to MAstV-5; PAstV strains belonged to MAstV-24, MAstV-26, and MAstV-31. However, in hexon gene-based phylogeny, both the detected PAdV were of genotype 3, exhibiting 91.9-92.5% nucleotide identity with Ivoirian and Chinese strains. The study reports first-time BAstVs from calves and PAdV-3 from piglets in India. The study revealed diversity in the circulation of AstVs in tested animals and AdVs in pigs, and suggested that they alone might be associated with other diarrhoea or in combination with other enteric pathogens, thus highlighting the necessity of extensive epidemiological investigations to develop diagnostic tools and control measures.

Circulation of unusual and diverse enteric virus strains in adults with acute gastroenteritis: a study from Pune (Maharashtra), Western India

In India, studies on the epidemiological and genetic characteristics of enteric viruses in adults with acute gastroenteritis (AGE) are lacking. In this study, fecal samples (n = 110) from adults with acute gastroenteritis in Pune, Western India, were tested for six enteric viruses, and the prevalence of these viruses was as follows: rotavirus A (RVA), 38.5%; enterovirus (EV), 23.1%; astrovirus (AstV), 23.1%; adenovirus (AdV), 7.7%; human bocavirus (HBoV), 7.7%; norovirus (NoV), 0%. Circulation of the RVA G1P[8], G3P[8], G9P[4], CVA-10, echovirus E13, EVC-116, AstV-5, AstV-2, HBoV-1, and AdVC-2 types was observed. When compared to the RotaTeq, Rotarix, and RotaVac vaccine strains, antigenic changes were found in the A, B, C, and F regions of the RVA strains. The circulation of genetically diverse, unusual enteric virus strains, reported here for the first time in adults with acute gastroenteritis, warrants multi-center hospital-based surveillance studies across the country.

A Comparative Study of Acute Gastroenteritis Symptoms in Single- versus Multiple-Virus Infections

Many different enteric viruses can cause acute gastroenteritis in humans worldwide. While a single virus can indeed cause disease, multiple-virus infections are commonly reported. However, data regarding a comparison between single- and multiple-virus infections upon clinical manifestations of acute gastroenteritis are relatively limited. In this study, a total of 2383 fecal specimens were collected from children with acute gastroenteritis during June 2014-July 2017 in a pediatric clinic in Japan and tested for 11 viruses by multiplex RT-PCR. At least 1 virus was found in 1706 (71.6%) specimens and norovirus GII was the most frequent agent, followed by rotavirus A and other viruses. Multiple-virus infections were identified in 565 cases (33.1%). While major clinical symptoms were found to be significantly different in some single- vs. multiple-virus infections, the disease severity was statistically non-significant. Our study highlights the burden of multiple-virus infections for acute gastroenteritis and the clinical features of patients with multiple-virus infections.

Efficacy and safety of Bacillus clausii (O/C, N/R, SIN, T) probiotic combined with oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and zinc in acute diarrhea in children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in India

Background

Childhood diarrhea remains a major disease burden, particularly in developing countries, and is a leading cause of death in children aged < 5 years, worldwide. Treatment of acute diarrhea now includes probiotics to potentially reduce the duration and severity of the illness. This phase 3, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study assessed the efficacy and safety of four strains (O/C, N/R, SIN, T) of Bacillus clausii probiotic (Enterogermina®) plus oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and zinc, versus placebo plus ORT and zinc, in infants and children in India with acute moderate diarrhea.

Methods

Patients aged 6 months to 5 years with acute moderate diarrhea (WHO 2005 definition) of < 48 h’ duration were randomly assigned to receive one mini bottle of either polyantibiotic-resistant B. clausii (oral suspension of 2 billion spores per 5 mL bottle) or matching placebo twice daily (morning and evening) for 5 days. Exclusion criteria included known hypersensitivity to B. clausii or excipients in the study treatment, or to other probiotics. Patients were admitted to hospital from Day 1 and discharged ≥6 h after diarrhea resolution, or a maximum of 5 days. The primary endpoint was duration of acute diarrhea from randomization to recovery. Secondary endpoints included frequency of stools, diapers with stools, or dehydration status.

Results

In total, 457 patients were randomized; 454 were treated. Similar proportions of patients showed recovery from diarrhea over the 120 h after randomization (97.0% in the B. clausii group [n = 227]; 98.0% on placebo [n = 227]). Median time to recovery was also similar: 42.83 (95% CI: 40.90–44.90) hours for B. clausii and 42.13 (95% CI: 39.80–43.87) hours for placebo. However, no statistically significant difference was observed between groups (hazard ratio = 0.93 [95% CI: 0.77–1.13]; p = 0.6968); nor were there statistically significant differences between groups for the secondary endpoints. Treatment with B. clausii was well tolerated with incidence of adverse events (9.7%) similar to that for placebo (12.3%).

Conclusions

No significant difference in efficacy between B. clausii and placebo was demonstrated. Sample size may have been inadequate to allow detection of a between-group difference in efficacy, given the mild/moderate severity (only ~ 20% of patients had nausea/vomiting or abdominal pains) and short duration of disease among subjects, the relatively late start of treatment (most were already on Day 2 of their disease episode when study treatment started) and the effectiveness of the standard of care with ORT and zinc in both treatment groups.

Trial registration

CTRI number CTRI/2018/10/016053. Registered on 17 October 2018. EudraCT number 2016-005165-31. Registered 14 May 2020 (retrospectively registered).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40794-022-00166-6.

Viral pathogens of acute gastroenteritis in Egyptian children: role of the parechovirus

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Human parechovirus (HPeV) has emerged as a pathogen associated with acute gastroenteritis (AGE).

AIM

To detect the presence of HPeV in the stool samples from Egyptian children with AGE seeking care and the possibility of its co-infection with other enteric viruses.

METHODOLOGY

One hundred stool samples were collected from children attending Mansoura University Children's Hospital with AGE. HPeV and astrovirus were detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). At the same time, detection of rotavirus antigen and norovirus was achieved by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and rapid immunochromatographic method, respectively.

RESULTS

The most frequently detected virus was rotavirus (39%), followed by norovirus (27%), HPeV (19%), and astrovirus (12%). Interestingly, the single infection with HPeV was 5%. Among the 19 HPeV positive samples, the co-infection of HPeV with other enteric viruses was detected in 9(43.9%) for rotavirus, 7(36.8%) for norovirus, 2(10.5%) for astrovirus, in 3(15.8%) for rotavirus and norovirus and 1(5.3%) for norovirus and astrovirus. Regarding the clinical presentation, there was no significant difference between children infected with HPeV alone and those infected with viruses other than HPeV alone; fever (p = 0.3), vomiting (p = 0.12), abdominal pain (p = 0.12), and grades of severity (P = 0.82). HPeV alone infected children were of mild severity (60%), and their main presenting symptom was fever (60%).

CONCLUSIONS

Detection of HPeV as a single viral pathogen in the stool of some children with AGE showed that this virus could be a causative agent of AGE in Egyptian children. Therefore, HPeV could be included as one of the viruses screened for AGE diagnosis in children in Egypt.

Development of a Multiplex RT-PCR Assay for Simultaneous Detection of Four Potential Zoonotic Swine RNA Viruses

Swine viruses like porcine sapovirus (SaV), porcine encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), porcine rotavirus A (RVA) and porcine astroviruses (AstV) are potentially zoonotic viruses or suspected of potential zoonosis. These viruses have been detected in pigs with or without clinical signs and often occur as coinfections. Despite the potential public health risks, no assay for detecting them all at once has been developed. Hence, in this study, a multiplex RT-PCR (mRT-PCR) assay was developed for the simultaneous detection of SaV, EMCV, RVA and AstV from swine fecal samples. The PCR parameters were optimized using specific primers for each target virus. The assay’s sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and application to field samples have been evaluated. Using a pool of plasmids containing the respective viral target fragments as a template, the developed mRT-PCR successfully detected 2.5 × 10³ copies of each target virus. The assay’s specificity was tested using six other swine viruses as a template and did not show any cross-reactivity. A total of 280 field samples were tested with the developed mRT-PCR assay. Positive rates for SaV, EMCV, RVA, and AstV were found to be 24.6% (69/280), 5% (14/280), 4.3% (12/280), and 17.5% (49/280), respectively. Compared to performing separate assays for each virus, this mRT-PCR assay is a simple, rapid, and cost-effective method for detecting mixed or single infections of SaV, EMCV, RVA, and AstV.

Molecular characterization of the gastrointestinal eukaryotic virome in elderly people in Belem, Para, Brazil

Acute gastroenteritis is one of the main causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide, affecting mainly children, the immunocompromised and elderly people. Enteric viruses, especially rotavirus A, are considered important etiological agents, while long-term care facilities are considered favorable environments for the occurrence of sporadic cases and outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis. Therefore, it is important to monitor the viral agents present in nursing homes, especially because studies involving the elderly population in Brazil are scarce, resulting in a lack of available virological data. As a result, the causative agent remains unidentified in a large number of reported acute gastroenteritis cases. However, the advent of next-generation sequencing provides new opportunities for viral detection and discovery. The aim of this study was to identify the viruses that circulate among elderly people with and without acute gastroenteritis, living in residential care homes in Belém, Pará, Brazil, between 2017 and 2019. Ninety-three samples were collected and screened by immunochromatography and qPCR. After, the samples were analyzed individually or in pools by next generation sequencing to identify the viruses circulating in this population. In 26 sequenced samples, members of 13 eukaryotic virus families were identified. The most abundantly present virus families were Parvoviridae, Genomoviridae and Smacoviridae. Contigs displaying similarity to pegiviruses were also detected. Furthermore, a near-complete rotavirus A genome was obtained and could be classified as G3P[8] genotype with the equine DS-1-like genetic background. Complete sequences of the VP4 and VP7 genes of a rotavirus C were also detected, belonging to G4P[2]. This study demonstrates the first characterization of the gastrointestinal virome in elderly in Northern Brazil. A diversity of viruses was found to be present in patients with and without diarrhea, reinforcing the need to monitor elderly people residing in long-term care facilities, especially in cases of acute gastroenteritis.

Genotypic characterization of group A rotavirus in children < 5 years of age at tertiary care hospital in North India

PURPOSE

This study was undertaken to find out the positivity of rotavirus associated diarrhoea in children <5 years of age in Meerut district and to determine the genomic diversity of the circulating rotavirus strains in this geographical area.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital for a period of one year. A total of 240 stool samples were collected from children suffering from acute diarrhoea and subjected for rotavirus antigen detection by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). The EIA-positive samples were further genotyped to determine the G and P types using semi nested multiplex reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Demographic and clinical parameters were recorded in a pre-designed proforma.

RESULTS

The rotavirus antigen positivity rate was 14.58% in Meerut district. There was male predominance and highest positivity rate was seen in children 13-24 months of age, in winter months and majority of cases belonged to moderate degree of severity. A total of 64% children in the study area were vaccinated and positivity was low in the vaccine group. G9P[4] was the predominant genotype followed by G3P[8]. Uncommon strains G12P[6] and G12P[8] were also reported as circulating genotypes in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

The positivity rate of rotavirus associated diarrhoea has reduced in Meerut district post vaccination. G9P[4] was the most common circulating RV genotype in Meerut. Our study highlights the importance of including the emerging rotavirus strains in future multivalent RV vaccines to make the vaccines regionally more specific.

Clinical Profiles of Childhood Astrovirus-, Sapovirus-, and Norovirus-Associated Acute Gastroenteritis in Pediatric Emergency Departments in Alberta, 2014-2018

BACKGROUND

Infections by previously underdiagnosed viruses astrovirus and sapovirus are poorly characterized compared with norovirus, the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis.

METHODS

Children <18 years old with acute gastroenteritis were recruited from pediatric emergency departments in Alberta, Canada between 2014 and 2018. We described and compared the clinical course of acute gastroenteritis in children with astrovirus, sapovirus, and norovirus.

RESULTS

Astrovirus was detected in 56 of 2688 (2.1%) children, sapovirus was detected in 146 of 2688 (5.4%) children, and norovirus was detected in 486 of 2688 (18.1%) children. At illness onset, ~60% of astrovirus cases experienced both diarrhea and vomiting. Among sapovirus and norovirus cases, 35% experienced diarrhea at onset and 80% of 91% (sapovirus/norovirus) vomited; however, diarrhea became more prevalent than vomiting at approximately day 4 of illness. Over the full course of illness, diarrhea was 18% (95% confidence interval [CI], 8%- 29%) more prevalent among children with astrovirus than norovirus infections and had longer duration with greater maximal events; there were a median of 4.0 fewer maximal vomiting events (95% CI, 2.0-5.0). Vomiting continued for a median of 24.8 hours longer (95% CI, 9.6-31.7) among children with sapovirus versus norovirus. Differences between these viruses were otherwise minimal.

CONCLUSIONS

Sapovirus infections attended in the emergency department are more similar to norovirus than previously reported, whereas astrovirus infections have several distinguishable characteristics.

Paediatrics: how to manage viral gastroenteritis

Background

Viral gastroenteritis is the most common diarrhoeal disorder seen in general practice and emergency departments. This article aims to provide a narrative updated review on the evaluation and management of viral gastroenteritis in children.

Methods

A PubMed search was performed with Clinical Queries using the key term 'viral gastroenteritis'. The search strategy included clinical trials, meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, observational studies and reviews. The search was restricted to the English literature and the paediatric population.

Results

Acute viral gastroenteritis is usually self-limiting. However, it can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance if not properly treated. Adequate fluids containing physiological concentrations of glucose and electrolytes should be provided to compensate for gastrointestinal losses and cover maintenance needs. Oral rehydration therapy is as effective as intravenous (IV) fluid therapy for rehydration for children with mild-to-moderate dehydration. Measurements of serum electrolytes, creatinine and glucose are usually not necessary and should only be considered in a subset of children with severe dehydration who require hospitalization and IV therapy. Judicious use of ondansetron can increase the success rate of oral rehydration therapy and minimize the need for IV therapy and hospitalization.

Conclusion

Acute viral gastroenteritis is associated with substantial morbidity in developed countries and significant mortality in developing countries. Physicians should educate caregivers on proper personal hygiene and handwashing to prevent faecal to oral transmission of the pathogen as well as the importance of rotavirus vaccine in the prevention of rotavirus gastroenteritis. Several norovirus vaccines are currently undergoing clinical trials with promising results. It is hoped that development of an effective norovirus vaccine will further reduce the incidence of viral gastroenteritis.

Occurrence of Human Enteric Viruses in Water Sources and Shellfish: A Focus on Africa

Enteric viruses are a diverse group of human pathogens which are primarily transmitted by the faecal-oral route and are a major cause of non-bacterial diarrhoeal disease in both developed and developing countries. Because they are shed in high numbers by infected individuals and can persist for a long time in the environment, they pose a serious threat to human health globally. Enteric viruses end up in the environment mainly through discharge or leakage of raw or inadequately treated sewage into water sources such as springs, rivers, dams, or marine estuaries. Human exposure then follows when contaminated water is used for drinking, cooking, or recreation and, importantly, when filter-feeding bivalve shellfish are consumed. The human health hazard posed by enteric viruses is particularly serious in Africa where rapid urbanisation in a relatively short period of time has led to the expansion of informal settlements with poor sanitation and failing or non-existent wastewater treatment infrastructure, and where rural communities with limited or no access to municipal water are dependent on nearby open water sources for their subsistence. The role of sewage-contaminated water and bivalve shellfish as vehicles for transmission of enteric viruses is well documented but, to our knowledge, has not been comprehensively reviewed in the African context. Here we provide an overview of enteric viruses and then review the growing body of research where these viruses have been detected in association with sewage-contaminated water or food in several African countries. These studies highlight the need for more research into the prevalence, molecular epidemiology and circulation of these viruses in Africa, as well as for development and application of innovative wastewater treatment approaches to reduce environmental pollution and its impact on human health on the continent.

Molecular study of human astrovirus in Egyptian children with acute gastroenteritis

Introduction

Human astrovirus (HAstV) has been increasingly identified as an important cause of acute gastroenteritis in young children. Limited information is available about the prevalence and genotype distribution of classic HAstV causing acute gastroenteritis in Egyptian children.

Methods

Stool samples were collected from 100 infants and children attending the gastroenterology outpatient clinic in Mansoura University Children Hospital and suffering from acute gastroenteritis during the period extending from January 2018 to January 2019. Samples were tested for HAstV using reverse transcription PCR. Genotyping was performed using type-specific reverse transcription nested PCR.

Results

Among 100 children included in this study, the detection rate of HAstV was 11% (11 patients). There was a significant difference regarding age between cases positive and negative for HAstV (p=0.005). There was a higher prevalence of HAstV in children aged one year or younger. Significant association was detected between HAstV positive cases and rural residence (p=0.002), summer season (p=0.025) and fever (p=0.017). The HAstV genotypes detected were HAstV-8 (8/11, 72.7%), HAstV-3 (2/11, 18.2%) and HAstV-2 (1/11, 9.1%).

Conclusions

This study suggests that HAstV is a common pathogen causing gastroenteritis in Egyptian children especially in rural areas. The most frequent HAstV genotype in our study was HAstV-8.