Neuroprotective effect of adenine on purkinje cell survival in rat cerebellar primary cultures

Trajectory in biological metal-organic frameworks: Biosensing and sustainable strategies-perspectives and challenges

The ligand attribute of biomolecules to form coordination bonds with metal ions led to the discovery of a novel class of materials called biomolecule-associated metal-organic frameworks (Bio-MOFs). These biomolecules coordinate in multiple ways and provide versatile applications. Far-spread bio-ligands include nucleobases, amino acids, peptides, cyclodextrins, saccharides, porphyrins/metalloporphyrin, proteins, etc. Low-toxicity, self-assembly, stability, designable and selectable porous size, the existence of rigid and flexible forms, bio-compatibility, and synergistic interactions between metal ions have led Bio-MOFs to be commercialized in industries such as sensors, food, pharma, and eco-sensing. The rapid growth and commercialization are stunted by absolute bio-compatibility issues, bulk morphology that makes it rigid to alter shape/porosity, longer reaction times, and inadequate research. This review elucidates the structural vitality, biocompatibility issues, and vital sensing applications, including challenges for incorporating bio-ligands into MOF. Critical innovations in Bio-MOFs' applicative spectrum, including sustainable food packaging, biosensing, insulin and phosphoprotein detection, gas sensing, CO2 capture, pesticide carriers, toxicant adsorptions, etc., have been elucidated. Emphasis is placed on biosensing and biomedical applications with biomimetic catalysis and sensitive sensor designing.

An Efficient Green Approach to Constructing Adenine Sulfate-Derived Multicolor Sulfur- and Nitrogen-Codoped Carbon Dots and Their Bioimaging Applications

A cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach is proposed for producing N- and S-codoped multicolor-emission carbon dots (N- and S-codoped MCDs) at a mild reaction temperature (150 °C) and relatively short time (3 h). In this process, adenine sulfate acts as a novel precursor and doping agent, effectively reacting with other reagents such as citric acid, para-aminosalicylic acid, and ortho-phenylenediamine, even during solvent-free pyrolysis. The distinctive structures of reagents lead to the increased amount of graphitic nitrogen and sulfur doping in the N- and S-codoped MCDs. Notably, the obtained N- and S-codoped MCDs exhibit considerable fluorescence intensities, and their emission color can be adjusted from blue to yellow. The observed tunable photoluminescence can be attributed to variations in the surface state and the amount of N and S contents. Furthermore, due to the favorable optical properties, good water solubility and biocompatibility, and low cytotoxicity, these N- and S-codoped MCDs, especially green carbon dots, are successfully applied as fluorescent probes for bioimaging. The affordable and environmentally friendly synthesis method employed to create N- and S-codoped MCDs, combined with their remarkable optical properties, offers a promising avenue for their use in various fields, particularly in biomedical applications.

Chitosan-based hydrogels with injectable, self-healing and antibacterial properties for wound healing

Developing an efficient and available material for improved cutaneous tissue regeneration is a major challenge in healthcare. Inspired by the concept of moist wound healing, the injectable and self-healing adenine-modified chitosan (AC) hydrogels are designed to significantly accelerate wound healing without the addition of therapeutic drugs. A series of AC derivatives with degree of substitution (DS) ranging from 0.21 to 0.55 were synthesized in aqueous solutions, and the AC hydrogels were prepared by a simple heating/cooling process. AC hydrogels presented good self-healing, low swelling rate capacity, biocompatibility, promote cell proliferation and excellent hemostatic effect. The hydrogels displayed excellent antibacterial activities against gram-negative bacteria, gram-positive bacteria, fungi and drug-resistance bacteria. Moreover, the full-thickness skin defect model experiments showed that AC hydrogels could reduce inflammatory cell infiltration and accelerate wound healing significantly. The hydrogel can shed new light on designing of the multifunctional dressings for wound healing.

Novel multifunctional adenine-modified chitosan dressings for promoting wound healing

Wound healing is a dynamic and intricate process, and newly dressings are urgently needed to promote wound healing over the multiple stages. Herein, two water-soluble adenine-modified chitosan (CS-A) derivatives were synthesized in aqueous solutions and freeze-dried to obtain porous sponge-like dressings. The novel derivatives displayed antibacterial activities against S. aureus and E. coli. Moreover, CS-A derivatives demonstrated excellent hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility, as well as promoted the proliferation of the wound cells by shortening the G1 phase and improving DNA duplication efficiency. The ability of CS-A sponges to promote wound healing was studied in a full-thickness skin defect model. The histological analysis and immunohistochemical staining showed that the wounds treated with CS-A sponges displayed fewer inflammatory cells, and faster regeneration of epithelial tissue, collagen deposition and neovascularization. Therefore, CS-A derivatives have potential application in wound dressings and provide new ideas for the design of multifunctional biomaterials.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Adenine Enhance Osteogenesis in the Osteoblast-Like MG-63 Cells

Background: Adenine is a purine with a role in cellular respiration and protein synthesis. It is considered for its pharmacological potential. We investigated whether anti-inflammatory effect of adenine benefits on the proliferation and maturation of osteoblastic cells. Methods: Human osteoblast-like cells (MG-63) were cultured with adenine under control conditions or pre-treated with 10ng/mL of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) followed by adenine treatment. Cell viability was examined using dimethylthiazol diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Expression of cytokines and osteogenic markers were analyzed using quantitative PCR (qPCR) and ELISA. Enzyme activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and collagen content were measured. Results: TNF-α exposure led to a decreased viability of osteoblastic cells. Treatment with adenine suppressed TNF-α-induced elevation in IL-6 expression and nitrite oxide production in MG-63 cells. Adenine induced the osteoblast differentiation with increased transcript levels of collage and increased ALP enzyme activity. Conclusions: Adenine exerts anti-inflammatory activity in an inflammatory cell model. Adenine benefits osteoblast differentiation in normal and inflammatory experimental settings. Adenine has a potential for the use to treat inflammatory bone condition such as osteoporosis.

Adenine Inhibits the Growth of Colon Cancer Cells via AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Mediated Autophagy

Background

Adenine is involved in a variety of cell biological processes and has been explored for pharmacological uses. Its therapeutic use for managing cancer is of great interest. In the present study, we investigated the anticancer effects of adenine and the underlying mechanism in colon cancer cells.

Methods

Cell viability was measured using the MTT assay. Levels of phosphorylation and protein expression were determined using western blotting. qPCR was carried out to determine the changes in mRNA expression of genes of interest.

Results

Adenine significantly inhibited the viability of colon cancer cells, HT29 and Caco-2 cells, in a dose-dependent manner. Adenine induced significant apoptosis in HT29 cells, whereas Caco-2 cells exhibited less apoptotic responses. The data showed that adenine activated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling contributing to autophagic cell death through mTOR in both colon cancer cell lines.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that adenine inhibits the growth of colon cancer cells. Anticancer activity of adenine in colon cancer cells is attributable to the activation of apoptotic signaling and in turn the AMPK/mTOR pathway. Adenine represents a natural compound with anticancer potency.

Adenine attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory reactions

A nucleobase adenine is a fundamental component of nucleic acids and adenine nucleotides. Various biological roles of adenine have been discovered. It is not produced from degradation of adenine nucleotides in mammals but produced mainly during polyamine synthesis by dividing cells. Anti-inflammatory roles of adenine have been supported in IgE-mediated allergic reactions, immunological functions of lymphocytes and dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis. However adenine effects on Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated inflammation by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a cell wall component of Gram negative bacteria, is not examined. Here we investigated anti-inflammatory roles of adenine in LPS-stimulated immune cells, including a macrophage cell line RAW264.7 and bone marrow derived mast cells (BMMCs) and peritoneal cells in mice. In RAW264.7 cells stimulated with LPS, adenine inhibited production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 and inflammatory lipid mediators, prostaglandin E₂ and leukotriene B₄. Adenine impeded signaling pathways eliciting production of these inflammatory mediators. It suppressed IκB phosphorylation, nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), phosphorylation of Akt and mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) JNK and ERK. Although adenine raised cellular AMP which could activate AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK), the enzyme activity was not enhanced. In BMMCs, adenine inhibited the LPS-induced production of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-13 and also hindered phosphorylation of NF-κB and Akt. In peritoneal cavity, adenine suppressed the LPS-induced production of TNF-α and IL-6 by peritoneal cells in mice. These results show that adenine attenuates the LPS-induced inflammatory reactions.

Mechanisms of the action of adenine on anti-allergic effects in mast cells

Introduction

Mast cells play an important role in allergic responses.

Methods

We herein demonstrated the mechanisms of inhibitory effect of adenine on IgE/antigen‐induced degranulation and TNF‐α release in mast cells.

Results

We found that these effects were dependent on the amino group of adenine because purine only weakly inhibited degranulation. Adenine also inhibited Ca²⁺ ionophore‐ and thapsigargin‐induced degranulation, however, this inhibitory effect was weaker than that of the antigen. Therefore, the inhibitory effects of adenine on degranulation may be mediated before as well as after the Ca²⁺ raise under the antigen stimulus. Adenine inhibited antigen‐induced Syk and the subsequent induction of AKT and ERK activation under FcϵRI‐mediated signal. Adenine also attenuated antigen‐induced increase in Ca²⁺. Furthermore, adenine inhibited IgE/antigen‐induced IKKα/β activation, which is involved in degranulation. Finally, adenine protected mice against anaphylactic allergic responses in vivo.

Conclusions

The present study revealed a key role of adenine in the attenuation of allergic responses through the inhibition of Syk‐mediated signal transduction and IKK‐mediated degranulation.

Adenine attenuates the Ca(2+) contraction-signaling pathway via adenine receptor-mediated signaling in rat vascular smooth muscle cells

Our previous study demonstrated that adenine (6-amino-6H-purine) relaxed contracted rat aorta rings in an endothelial-independent manner. Although adenine receptors (AdeRs) are expressed in diverse tissues, aortic AdeR expression has not been ascertained. Thus, the aims of this study were to clarify the expression of AdeR in rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and to investigate the adenine-induced vasorelaxation mechanism(s). VSMCs were isolated from 8-week-old male Wistar-Kyoto rats and used in this study. Phosphorylation of myosin light chain (p-MLC) was measured by western blot. AdeR mRNA was detected by RT-PCR. Intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i) was measured by using Fura-2/AM. Vasorelaxant adenine (10-100 μM) significantly reduced p-MLC by angiotensin II (Ang II, 10 μM) in VSMCs (P < 0.05). We confirmed the expression of aortic AdeR mRNA and the activation of PKA in VSMCs through stimulation of AdeR by adenine by ELISA. Intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i) measurement demonstrated that adenine inhibits Ang II- and m-3M3FBS (PLC agonist)-induced [Ca(2+)]i elevation. In AdeR-knockdown VSMCs, PKA activation and p-MLC reduction by adenine were completely abolished. These results firstly demonstrated that vasorelaxant adenine can suppress Ca(2+) contraction signaling pathways via aortic AdeR/PKA activation in VSMCs.

Adenine Inhibits TNF-α Signaling in Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Reduces Mucosal Inflammation in a Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Colitis Mouse Model

Adenine (6-amino-6H-purine), found in molokheiya (Corchorus olitorius L.), has exerted vasorelaxation effects in the thoracic aorta. However, the mode of action of the anti-inflammatory effect of adenine is unclear. Thus, we investigated to clarify the effect of adenine on chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. In intestinal epithelial cells, adenine significantly inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α-induced interleukin-8 secretion. The inhibition of adenine was abolished under the treatment of inhibitors of adenyl cyclase (AC) and protein kinase A (PKA), indicating the effect of adenine was mediated through the AC/PKA pathway. Adenine (5, 10, and 50 mg/kg BW/day) was administered orally for 14 days to female BALB/c mice, and then 5% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) was given to induce colitis. Adenine (5 mg/kg BW/day) significantly prevented DSS-induced colon shortening, expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and histological damage in the colon. These results suggest that adenine can be a promising nutraceutical for the prevention of intestinal inflammation.

An introduction to the roles of purinergic signalling in neurodegeneration, neuroprotection and neuroregeneration

Purinergic signalling appears to play important roles in neurodegeneration, neuroprotection and neuroregeneration. Initially there is a brief summary of the background of purinergic signalling, including release of purines and pyrimidines from neural and non-neural cells and their ectoenzymatic degradation, and the current characterisation of P1 (adenosine), and P2X (ion channel) and P2Y (G protein-coupled) nucleotide receptor subtypes. There is also coverage of the localization and roles of purinoceptors in the healthy central nervous system. The focus is then on the roles of purinergic signalling in trauma, ischaemia, stroke and in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, as well as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuroprotective mechanisms involving purinergic signalling are considered and its involvement in neuroregeneration, including the role of adult neural stem/progenitor cells. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Purines in Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration'.

Adenine suppresses IgE-mediated mast cell activation

Nucleobase adenine is produced by dividing human lymphoblasts mainly from polyamine synthesis and inhibits immunological functions of lymphocytes. We investigated the anti-allergic effect of adenine on IgE-mediated mast cell activation in vitro and passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in mice. Intraperitoneal injection of adenine to IgE-sensitized mice attenuated IgE-mediated PCA reaction in a dose dependent manner, resulting in a median effective concentration of 4.21 mg/kg. In mast cell cultures, only adenine among cytosine, adenine, adenosine, ADP and ATP dose-dependently suppressed FcɛRI (a high affinity receptor for IgE)-mediated degranulation with a median inhibitory concentration of 1.6mM. It also blocked the production of LTB4, an inflammatory lipid mediator, and inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-4. In addition, adenine blocked thapsigargin-induced degranulation which is FcɛRI-independent but shares FcɛRI-dependent signaling events. Adenine inhibited the phosphorylation of signaling molecules important to FcɛRI-mediated allergic reactions such as Syk, PLCγ2, Gab2, Akt, and mitogen activated protein kinases ERK and JNK. From this result, we report for the first time that adenine inhibits PCA in mice and allergic reaction by inhibiting FcɛRI-mediated signaling events in mast cells. Therefore, adenine may be useful for the treatment of mast cell-mediated allergic diseases. Also, the upregulation of adenine production may provide another mechanism for suppressing mast cell activity especially at inflammatory sites.

The rat adenine receptor: pharmacological characterization and mutagenesis studies to investigate its putative ligand binding site

The rat adenine receptor (rAdeR) was the first member of a family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) activated by adenine and designated as P0-purine receptors. The present study aimed at gaining insights into structural aspects of ligand binding and function of the rAdeR. We exchanged amino acid residues predicted to be involved in ligand binding (Phe110(3.24), Asn115(3.29), Asn173(4.60), Phe179(45.39), Asn194(5.40), Phe195(5.41), Leu201(5.47), His252(6.54), and Tyr268(7.32)) for alanine and expressed them in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells. Membrane preparations subjected to [(3)H]adenine binding studies revealed only minor effects indicating that none of the exchanged amino acids is part of the ligand binding pocket, at least in the inactive state of the receptor. Furthermore, we coexpressed the rAdeR and its mutants with mammalian Gi proteins in Sf9 insect cells to probe receptor activation. Two amino acid residues, Asn194(5.40) and Leu201(5.47), were found to be crucial for activation since their alanine mutants did not respond to adenine. Moreover we showed that-in contrast to most other rhodopsin-like GPCRs-the rAdeR does not contain essential disulfide bonds since preincubation with dithiothreitol neither altered adenine binding in Sf9 cell membranes, nor adenine-induced inhibition of adenylate cyclase in 1321N1 astrocytoma cells transfected with the rAdeR. To detect rAdeRs by Western blot analysis, we developed a specific antibody. Finally, we were able to show that the extended N-terminal sequence of the rAdeR constitutes a putative signal peptide of unknown function that is cleaved off in the mature receptor. Our results provide important insights into this new, poorly investigated family of purinergic receptors.

Characterization of new G protein-coupled adenine receptors in mouse and hamster

The nucleobase adenine has previously been reported to activate G protein-coupled receptors in rat and mouse. Adenine receptors (AdeR) thus constitute a new family of purine receptors, for which the designation "P0-receptors" has been suggested. We now describe the cloning and characterization of two new members of the AdeR family from mouse (MrgA10, termed mAde1R) and hamster (cAdeR). Both receptors were expressed in Sf9 insect cells, and radioligand binding studies were performed using [(3)H]adenine. Specific binding of the radioligand was detected in transfected, but not in untransfected cells, and K D values of 286 nM (mAde1R, B max 1.18 pmol/mg protein) and 301 nM (cAdeR, B max 17.7 pmol/mg protein), respectively, were determined. A series of adenine derivatives was investigated in competition binding assays. Minor structural modifications generally led to a reduction or loss of affinity, with one exception: 2-fluoroadenine was at least as potent as adenine itself at the cAdeR. Structure-activity relationships at all AdeR orthologs and subtypes investigated so far were similar, but not identical. For functional analyses, the cAdeR was homologously expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, while the mAde1R was heterologously expressed in 1321N1 astrocytoma cells. Like the previously described AdeRs from rat (rAdeR) and mouse (mAde2R), the mAde1R (EC50 9.77 nM) and the cAdeR (EC50 51.6 nM) were coupled to inhibition of adenylate cyclase. In addition, the cAdeR from hamster expressed in CHO cells produced an increase in intracellular calcium concentrations (EC50 6.24 nM) and was found to be additionally coupled to Gq proteins.

Purinergic signalling and disorders of the central nervous system

Purines have key roles in neurotransmission and neuromodulation, with their effects being mediated by the purine and pyrimidine receptor subfamilies, P1, P2X and P2Y. Recently, purinergic mechanisms and specific receptor subtypes have been shown to be involved in various pathological conditions including brain trauma and ischaemia, neurodegenerative diseases involving neuroimmune and neuroinflammatory reactions, as well as in neuropsychiatric diseases, including depression and schizophrenia. This article reviews the role of purinergic signalling in CNS disorders, highlighting specific purinergic receptor subtypes, most notably A(2A), P2X(4) and P2X(7), that might be therapeutically targeted for the treatment of these conditions.

Characterization of guanine and guanosine transport in primary cultured rat cortical astrocytes and neurons

In this study, we examined the transport mechanisms for guanine and guanosine in rat neurons and astrocytes, and compared their characteristics. In the both types of cell, the uptake of [(3)H]guanine and [(3)H]guanosine was time-, temperature-, and concentration-dependent, and Na(+)-independent. Their uptake decreased on the addition of purine and pyrimidine nucleobases or nucleosides, and the inhibitory effect of the purine analogues was greater than that of the pyrimidine ones. In both cell types, equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) 1 and ENT2 expression was confirmed at the mRNA level, and nitrobenzylmercaptopurine riboside, a representative inhibitor for ENT, decreased their uptake at concentrations of over 10 microM. Comparing uptake characteristics between the substrates, [(3)H]guanine uptake exhibited higher affinity and clearance than [(3)H]guanosine uptake in each type of cell. Although between neurons and astrocytes, there was no difference in the apparent uptake clearance for [(3)H]guanine and [(3)H]guanosine, which was calculated based upon the cellular protein content, the cellular uptake clearance was significantly greater in astrocytes than in neurons. These findings indicate that guanine and guanosine, of which the former is a preferable substrate, are taken up into both neurons and astrocytes via ENT2, and that the extracellular concentrations of guanine and guanosine are mainly regulated by astrocytes to maintain brain physiology.

Adenine-induced inhibition of Na(+)-ATPase activity: Evidence for involvement of the Gi protein-coupled receptor in the cAMP signaling pathway

In the present work, we demonstrate that adenine reduced Na(+)-ATPase activity in isolated basolateral membrane (BLM) of proximal tubule in a dose-dependent manner. Adenine metabolism was ruled out by TLC analysis of the potential [(3)H]adenine derived-metabolites. Specific binding of [(3)H]adenine to isolated BLM was observed in a dose-dependent manner with K(d) and B(max) of 242.6+/-27.6 nM and 2749.9+/-104.9 fmolmg(-1), respectively. Adenine increased the [(35)S]GTPgammaS specific binding and it was completely abolished by 10(-6)M GDPbetaS (G protein inhibitor) but it was not modified by DPCPX, DMPX and MRS1523, selective antagonists for A(1), A(2) and A(3) receptors, respectively. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of adenine on the Na(+)-ATPase activity was blocked by 10(-6)M GDPbetaS, 1 microg/ml pertussis toxin (Gi protein inhibitor), 10(-6)M foskolin (adenylyl cyclase activator) and 10(-8)M cAMP. These data demonstrate that adenine inhibits the proximal tubule Na(+)-ATPase activity through the Gi protein-coupled receptor.

Physiology and pathophysiology of purinergic neurotransmission

This review is focused on purinergic neurotransmission, i.e., ATP released from nerves as a transmitter or cotransmitter to act as an extracellular signaling molecule on both pre- and postjunctional membranes at neuroeffector junctions and synapses, as well as acting as a trophic factor during development and regeneration. Emphasis is placed on the physiology and pathophysiology of ATP, but extracellular roles of its breakdown product, adenosine, are also considered because of their intimate interactions. The early history of the involvement of ATP in autonomic and skeletal neuromuscular transmission and in activities in the central nervous system and ganglia is reviewed. Brief background information is given about the identification of receptor subtypes for purines and pyrimidines and about ATP storage, release, and ectoenzymatic breakdown. Evidence that ATP is a cotransmitter in most, if not all, peripheral and central neurons is presented, as well as full accounts of neurotransmission and neuromodulation in autonomic and sensory ganglia and in the brain and spinal cord. There is coverage of neuron-glia interactions and of purinergic neuroeffector transmission to nonmuscular cells. To establish the primitive and widespread nature of purinergic neurotransmission, both the ontogeny and phylogeny of purinergic signaling are considered. Finally, the pathophysiology of purinergic neurotransmission in both peripheral and central nervous systems is reviewed, and speculations are made about future developments.

Differential Expression of Cerebellar Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors mGLUR2/3 and mGLUR4a after the Administration of a Convulsant Drug and the Adenosine Analogue Cyclopentyladenosine

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) play a role in synaptic transmission, neuronal modulation and plasticity but their action in epileptic activity is still controversial. On the other hand adenosine acts as a neuromodulator with endogenous anticonvulsive properties. Since cerebellum from epileptic patients has shown neuronal damage, sometimes associated with Purkinje cells loss, we have explored the effect of repetitive seizures on two types of mGluR in the cerebellum. Seizures were induced by the convulsant drug 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MP) and the effect of the adenosine analogue cyclopentyladenosine (CPA) alone or before MP administration (CPA+MP) were also evaluated. The expression of the receptors subtypes 2/3 (mGluR2/3) and 4a (mGluR4a) was assessed by immunocitochemistry. Granular cell layer was labeled with mGluR2/3 antibody and increased immunoreactivity was observed after MP (60%), CPA (53%) and CPA + MP (85%) treatments. Control cerebellum slices showed mGluR4a reactivity around Purkinje cells, while MP, CPA and CPA+MP treatment decreased this immunostaining. Repetitive administration of MP and CPA induces an increased cerebellar mGluR2/3 and a decreased mGluR4a immunostaining, suggesting a distinct participation of both receptors that may be related to the type of cell involved. A protective action and /or an apoptotic effect may not be discarded. CPA repetitive administration although increase seizure latency, cannot prevent seizure activity.

Gene transfer into Purkinje cells using herpesviral amplicon vectors in cerebellar cultures

Purkinje cells play a crucial role in sensory motor coordination since they are the only output projection neurons in the cerebellar cortex and are affected in most spinocerebellar ataxias. They stand out in the central nervous system due to their large size and their profusely branched dendritic arbor. However, molecular and cellular studies on Purkinje cells are often hampered by the difficulty of maintaining these cells in culture. Here we report an easy, robust and reproducible method to obtain Purkinje-enriched mixed cerebellar cell cultures from day 16 mouse embryos using papain digestion and a semi-defined culture medium, being the composition of the culture approximately 20% Purkinje cells, 70% non-Purkinje neurons and 10% glial cells. We demonstrate that efficient gene transfer into Purkinje cells (as well as into other cerebellar populations) is possible using herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1)-derived vectors. Indeed, up to 50% of the Purkinje cells can be transduced and gene expression may persist for at least 14 days. As a result, this procedure permits functional gene expression studies to be carried out on cultured Purkinje neurons. To demonstrate this, we show that the expression of a dominant-negative form of glycogen synthase kinase-3 protects Purkinje neurons against cell death triggered by a chemical inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase. In summary, we have established reproducible and reliable cerebellar cell cultures enriched for Purkinje cells which enables gene transfer studies to be carried out using herpesviral vectors.

Modulation of synaptic activity in Purkinje neurons by ATP

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a versatile signalling molecule in the central and peripheral nervous system, where it can be released from both neurons and glial cells. In the cerebellum, ATP is released endogenously from the second postnatal week onwards, and is involved in the up-regulation of spontaneous synaptic input to Purkinje neurons by activation of purinergic P2 receptors. In the cerebellar cortex, ATP presumably acts on presynaptic inhibitory interneurons, which are excited by the activation of both P2X and P2Y receptors. P2 receptors have been reported for Purkinje neurons, where they mediate intracellular Ca(2+) responses. The extracellular concentration of ATP is modulated by its enzymatic degradation by ecto-nucleotidases. Adenosine, which modulates evoked transmitter release, does not influence the spontaneous synaptic activity in Purkinje neurons. Some implications of ATP as a tonically active neuromodulator in the cerebellum are discussed.

Pathophysiology and therapeutic potential of purinergic signaling

The concept of a purinergic signaling system, using purine nucleotides and nucleosides as extracellular messengers, was first proposed over 30 years ago. After a brief introduction and update of purinoceptor subtypes, this article focuses on the diverse pathophysiological roles of purines and pyrimidines as signaling molecules. These molecules mediate short-term (acute) signaling functions in neurotransmission, mechanosensory transduction, secretion and vasodilatation, and long-term (chronic) signaling functions in cell proliferation, differentiation, and death involved in development and regeneration. Plasticity of purinoceptor expression in pathological conditions is frequently observed, including an increase in the purinergic component of autonomic cotransmission. Recent advances in therapies using purinergic-related drugs in a wide range of pathological conditions will be addressed with speculation on future developments in the field.

Evidence for the functional expression and pharmacological characterization of adenine receptors in native cells and tissues

An orphan G protein-coupled receptor from rat has recently been discovered to be activated by the nucleobase adenine (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:8573-8578, 2002). In the present study, we show for the first time that the adenine receptor is expressed in membrane preparations of native tissues and cell lines in high density, including rat brain cortex, rat brain striatum, and the mouse neuroblastoma x rat glioma hybrid cell line NG108-15. Saturation analysis with [3H]adenine at rat brain cortical membranes exhibited a single high-affinity binding site with a KD value of 27.2 nM, and a binding capacity of 2.28 pmol/mg of protein. Kinetic studies revealed unusual binding kinetics of [3H]adenine with rapid association and slow dissociation. A series of compounds were investigated in [3H]adenine competition experiments at rat brain cortex. Only minor substitution of the adenine structure was tolerated, the most potent compounds of the present series being 2-fluoroadenine (Ki value of 620 nM), 8-thioadenine (Ki value of 2.77 microM), N6-methyladenine (Ki value of 3.64 microM), and 7-methyladenine (Ki value of 4.13 microM), all of which were partial agonists (40-60% intrinsic activity). Adenine dose dependently inhibited forskolin-stimulated adenylate cyclase in membrane preparations of NG108-15 cells as well as in intact cells, showing that the receptor is functional in NG108-15 cells. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction experiments followed by sequencing indicate that the NG108-15 cells express the murine ortholog of the adenine receptor. Moreover, preliminary radioligand binding studies with [3H]adenine at membranes of human astrocytoma 1321N1 cells suggest that a human ortholog of the rat adenine receptor exists.