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Pompili E, De Franchis V, Giampietri C, Leone S, De Santis E, Fornai F, Fumagalli L, Fabrizi C. Protease Activated Receptor 1 and Its Ligands as Main Regulators of the Regeneration of Peripheral Nerves. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1668. [PMID: 34827666 PMCID: PMC8615415 DOI: 10.3390/biom11111668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast with the brain and spinal cord, peripheral nerves possess a striking ability to regenerate after damage. This characteristic of the peripheral nervous system is mainly due to a specific population of glial cells, the Schwann cells. Schwann cells promptly activate after nerve injury, dedifferentiate assuming a repair phenotype, and assist axon regrowth. In general, tissue injury determines the release of a variety of proteases which, in parallel with the degradation of their specific targets, also activate plasma membrane receptors known as protease-activated receptors (PARs). PAR1, the prototypical member of the PAR family, is also known as thrombin receptor and is present at the Schwann cell plasma membrane. This receptor is emerging as a possible regulator of the pro-regenerative capacity of Schwann cells. Here, we summarize the most recent literature data describing the possible contribution of PAR1 and PAR1-activating proteases in regulating the regeneration of peripheral nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Pompili
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Borelli 50, 00161 Rome, Italy; (V.D.F.); (C.G.); (E.D.S.); (L.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Valerio De Franchis
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Borelli 50, 00161 Rome, Italy; (V.D.F.); (C.G.); (E.D.S.); (L.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Claudia Giampietri
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Borelli 50, 00161 Rome, Italy; (V.D.F.); (C.G.); (E.D.S.); (L.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Stefano Leone
- Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Viale Guglielmo Marconi 446, 00146 Rome, Italy;
| | - Elena De Santis
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Borelli 50, 00161 Rome, Italy; (V.D.F.); (C.G.); (E.D.S.); (L.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Francesco Fornai
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy;
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Fumagalli
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Borelli 50, 00161 Rome, Italy; (V.D.F.); (C.G.); (E.D.S.); (L.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Cinzia Fabrizi
- Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Borelli 50, 00161 Rome, Italy; (V.D.F.); (C.G.); (E.D.S.); (L.F.); (C.F.)
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siRNA Treatment: "A Sword-in-the-Stone" for Acute Brain Injuries. Genes (Basel) 2013; 4:435-56. [PMID: 24705212 PMCID: PMC3924829 DOI: 10.3390/genes4030435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Revised: 08/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Ever since the discovery of small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) a little over a decade ago, it has been highly sought after for its potential as a therapeutic agent for many diseases. In this review, we discuss the promising possibility of siRNA to be used as a drug to treat acute brain injuries such as stroke and traumatic brain injury. First, we will give a brief and basic overview of the principle of RNA interference as an effective mechanism to decrease specific protein expression. Then, we will review recent in vivo studies describing siRNA research experiments/treatment options for acute brain diseases. Lastly, we will discuss the future of siRNA as a clinical therapeutic strategy against brain diseases and injuries, while addressing the current obstacles to effective brain delivery.
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Mirante O, Price M, Puentes W, Castillo X, Benakis C, Thevenet J, Monard D, Hirt L. Endogenous protease nexin-1 protects against cerebral ischemia. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:16719-31. [PMID: 23949634 PMCID: PMC3759934 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140816719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The serine protease thrombin plays a role in signalling ischemic neuronal death in the brain. Paradoxically, endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms can be triggered by preconditioning with thrombin (thrombin preconditioning, TPC), leading to tolerance to cerebral ischemia. Here we studied the role of thrombin’s endogenous potent inhibitor, protease nexin-1 (PN-1), in ischemia and in tolerance to cerebral ischemia induced by TPC. Cerebral ischemia was modelled in vitro in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures from rats or genetically engineered mice lacking PN-1 or with the reporter gene lacZ knocked into the PN-1 locus PN-1HAPN-1-lacZ/HAPN-1-lacZ (PN-1 KI) exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). We observed increased thrombin enzyme activity in culture homogenates 24 h after OGD. Lack of PN-1 increased neuronal death in the CA1, suggesting that endogenous PN-1 inhibits thrombin-induced neuronal damage after ischemia. OGD enhanced β-galactosidase activity, reflecting PN-1 expression, at one and 24 h, most strikingly in the stratum radiatum, a glial cell layer adjacent to the CA1 layer of ischemia sensitive neurons. TPC, 24 h before OGD, additionally increased PN-1 expression 1 h after OGD, compared to OGD alone. TPC failed to induce tolerance in cultures from PN-1−/− mice confirming PN-1 as an important TPC target. PN-1 upregulation after TPC was blocked by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor, L-JNKI1, known to block TPC. This work suggests that PN-1 is an endogenous neuroprotectant in cerebral ischemia and a potential target for neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osvaldo Mirante
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
| | - Melanie Price
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
| | - Wilfredo Puentes
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
| | - Ximena Castillo
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
| | - Corinne Benakis
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
| | - Jonathan Thevenet
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
| | - Denis Monard
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel 4058, Switzerland; E-Mail:
| | - Lorenz Hirt
- Stroke Laboratory, Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and Lausanne University, Lausanne 1011, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.M.); (M.P.); (W.P.); (X.C.); (C.B.); (J.T.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +41-21-314-12-68; Fax: +41-21-314-12-90
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