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Feng Y, Li Y, Shen PP, Wang B. Gene-Modified Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injury: a Promising Better Alternative Therapy. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2022; 18:2662-2682. [PMID: 35587330 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-022-10387-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Stem cell therapy holds great promise for the treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI), which can reverse neurodegeneration and promote tissue regeneration via its pluripotency and ability to secrete neurotrophic factors. Although various stem cell-based approaches have shown certain therapeutic effects when applied to the treatment of SCI, their clinical efficacies have been disappointing. Thus, it is an urgent need to further enhance the neurological benefits of stem cells through bioengineering strategies including genetic engineering. In this review, we summarize the progress of stem cell therapy for SCI and the prospect of genetically modified stem cells, focusing on the genome editing tools and functional molecules involved in SCI repair, trying to provide a deeper understanding of genetically modified stem cell therapy and more applicable clinical strategies for SCI repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yirui Feng
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yu Li
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ping-Ping Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and the Comprehensive Cancer Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Bin Wang
- Clinical Stem Cell Center, the Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
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2
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Liu Y, Wang Q, Wang Q, Cui M, Jin Y, Wang R, Mao Z, Miao D, Karaplis AC, Zhang YP, Shields LBE, Shields CB, Zhang Y. Role of PTHrP nuclear localization and carboxyl terminus sequences in postnatal spinal cord development. Dev Neurobiol 2020; 81:47-62. [PMID: 33275829 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) acts under physiological conditions to regulate normal development of several tissues and organs. The role of PTHrP in spinal cord development has not been characterized. Pthrp knock in (Pthrp KI) mice were genetically modified to produce PTHrP in which there is a deficiency of the nuclear localization sequence (NLS) and C-terminus. Using this genetically modified mouse model, we have characterized its effect on spinal cord development early postnatally. The spinal cords from Pthrp KI mice displayed a significant reduction in its length, weight, and cross-sectional area compared to wild-type controls. Histologically, there was a decreased development of neurons and glial cells that caused decreased cell proliferation and increased apoptosis. The neural stem cells (NSCs) cultures also revealed decreased cell proliferation and differentiation and increased apoptosis. The proposed mechanism of delayed spinal cord development in Pthrp KI mice may be due to alteration in associated pathways in regulation of cell-division cycles and apoptosis. There was significant downregulation of Bmi-1 and upregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p27, p21, and p16 in Pthrp KI animals. We conclude that NLS and C-terminus peptide segments of PTHrP play an important role in inhibiting cell apoptosis and stimulation of cellular proliferation necessary for normal spinal cord development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yahong Liu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Qiangcheng Wang
- The First Medical School of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Qun Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Min Cui
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Yaoyao Jin
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Rong Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory for Aging & Diseases of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Zhiyuan Mao
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory for Aging & Diseases of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Dengshun Miao
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory for Aging & Diseases of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Andrew C Karaplis
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Yi Ping Zhang
- Norton Neuroscience Institute, Norton Healthcare, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Lisa B E Shields
- Norton Neuroscience Institute, Norton Healthcare, Louisville, KY, USA
| | | | - Yongjie Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory for Aging & Diseases of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, P.R. China
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3
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Haery L, Deverman BE, Matho KS, Cetin A, Woodard K, Cepko C, Guerin KI, Rego MA, Ersing I, Bachle SM, Kamens J, Fan M. Adeno-Associated Virus Technologies and Methods for Targeted Neuronal Manipulation. Front Neuroanat 2019; 13:93. [PMID: 31849618 PMCID: PMC6902037 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2019.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-type-specific expression of molecular tools and sensors is critical to construct circuit diagrams and to investigate the activity and function of neurons within the nervous system. Strategies for targeted manipulation include combinations of classical genetic tools such as Cre/loxP and Flp/FRT, use of cis-regulatory elements, targeted knock-in transgenic mice, and gene delivery by AAV and other viral vectors. The combination of these complex technologies with the goal of precise neuronal targeting is a challenge in the lab. This report will discuss the theoretical and practical aspects of combining current technologies and establish best practices for achieving targeted manipulation of specific cell types. Novel applications and tools, as well as areas for development, will be envisioned and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin E. Deverman
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | | | - Ali Cetin
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Kenton Woodard
- Penn Vector Core, Gene Therapy Program, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Connie Cepko
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, United States
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4
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Wang Y, Wu W, Wu X, Sun Y, Zhang YP, Deng LX, Walker MJ, Qu W, Chen C, Liu NK, Han Q, Dai H, Shields LB, Shields CB, Sengelaub DR, Jones KJ, Smith GM, Xu XM. Remodeling of lumbar motor circuitry remote to a thoracic spinal cord injury promotes locomotor recovery. eLife 2018; 7:39016. [PMID: 30207538 PMCID: PMC6170189 DOI: 10.7554/elife.39016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Retrogradely-transported neurotrophin signaling plays an important role in regulating neural circuit specificity. Here we investigated whether targeted delivery of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) to lumbar motoneurons (MNs) caudal to a thoracic (T10) contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) could modulate dendritic patterning and synapse formation of the lumbar MNs. In vitro, Adeno-associated virus serotype two overexpressing NT-3 (AAV-NT-3) induced NT-3 expression and neurite outgrowth in cultured spinal cord neurons. In vivo, targeted delivery of AAV-NT-3 into transiently demyelinated adult mouse sciatic nerves led to the retrograde transportation of NT-3 to the lumbar MNs, significantly attenuating SCI-induced lumbar MN dendritic atrophy. NT-3 enhanced sprouting and synaptic formation of descending serotonergic, dopaminergic, and propriospinal axons on lumbar MNs, parallel to improved behavioral recovery. Thus, retrogradely transported NT-3 stimulated remodeling of lumbar neural circuitry and synaptic connectivity remote to a thoracic SCI, supporting a role for retrograde transport of NT-3 as a potential therapeutic strategy for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Neural Tissue Engineering Research Institute, Mudanjiang College of Medicine, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Wei Wu
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Xiangbing Wu
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Yan Sun
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi P Zhang
- Norton Neuroscience Institute, Norton Healthcare, Louisville, United States
| | - Ling-Xiao Deng
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Melissa Jane Walker
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Wenrui Qu
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Chen Chen
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Program in Medical Neuroscience, Paul and Carole Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indiana, United States
| | - Nai-Kui Liu
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Qi Han
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Heqiao Dai
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - Lisa Be Shields
- Norton Neuroscience Institute, Norton Healthcare, Louisville, United States
| | | | - Dale R Sengelaub
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, United States
| | - Kathryn J Jones
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
| | - George M Smith
- Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Xiao-Ming Xu
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Group, Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, United States
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Matsuoka H, Tanaka H, Sayanagi J, Iwahashi T, Suzuki K, Nishimoto S, Okada K, Murase T, Yoshikawa H. Neurotropin ® Accelerates the Differentiation of Schwann Cells and Remyelination in a Rat Lysophosphatidylcholine-Induced Demyelination Model. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19020516. [PMID: 29419802 PMCID: PMC5855738 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19020516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotropin® (NTP), a non-protein extract of inflamed rabbit skin inoculated with vaccinia virus, is clinically used for the treatment of neuropathic pain in Japan and China, although its effect on peripheral nerve regeneration remains to be elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of NTP on Schwann cells (SCs) in vitro and in vivo, which play an important role in peripheral nerve regeneration. In SCs, NTP upregulated protein kinase B (AKT) activity and Krox20 and downregulated extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 activity under both growth and differentiation conditions, enhanced the expression of myelin basic protein and protein zero under the differentiation condition. In a co-culture of dorsal root ganglion neurons and SCs, NTP accelerated myelination of SCs. To further investigate the influence of NTP on SCs in vivo, lysophosphatidylcholine was injected into the rat sciatic nerve, leading to the focal demyelination. After demyelination, NTP was administered systemically with an osmotic pump for one week. NTP improved the ratio of myelinated axons and motor, sensory, and electrophysiological function. These findings reveal novel effects of NTP on SCs differentiation in vitro and in vivo, and indicate NTP as a promising treatment option for peripheral nerve injuries and demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hozo Matsuoka
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Tanaka
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Junichi Sayanagi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Toru Iwahashi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Koji Suzuki
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Kansai Rosai Hospital, 3-1-69 Inabaso, Amagasaki, Hyogo 660-0064, Japan.
| | - Shunsuke Nishimoto
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Kansai Rosai Hospital, 3-1-69 Inabaso, Amagasaki, Hyogo 660-0064, Japan.
| | - Kiyoshi Okada
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
- Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Osaka University Hospital, 2-15 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Tsuyoshi Murase
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Hideki Yoshikawa
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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Lin S, Sterling NA, Junker IP, Helm CT, Smith GM. Effects of αTAT1 and HDAC5 on axonal regeneration in adult neurons. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177496. [PMID: 28505206 PMCID: PMC5432171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of posttranslational modifications in axonal injury and regeneration has been widely studied but there has been little consensus over the mechanism by which each modification affects adult axonal growth. Acetylation is known to play an important role in a variety of neuronal functions and its homeostasis is controlled by two enzyme families: the Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) and Histone Acetyl Transferases (HATs). Recent studies show that HDAC5 deacetylates microtubules in the axonal cytoplasm as part of an injury-induced regeneration response, but little is known about how acetylation of microtubules plays a role. Alpha-tubulin acetyl transferase (αTAT1) is a microtubule specific acetyl transferase that binds to microtubules and directly affects microtubule stability in cells. We hypothesize that increasing tubulin acetylation may play an important role in increasing the rate of axonal growth. In this study, we infected cultured adult DRG neurons with αTAT1 and αTAT1-D157N, a catalytically inactive mutant, and HDAC5, using lentiviruses. We found that αTAT1 significantly increases tubulin acetylation in 293T cells and DRG neurons but αTAT1-D157N does not. Furthermore, in neurons infected with αTAT1, a significant increase in acetylated tubulin was detected towards the distal portion of the axon but this increase was not detected in neurons infected with αTAT1-D157N. However, we found a significant increase in axon lengths of DRG neurons after αTAT1 and αTAT1-D157N infection, but no effect on axon lengths after infection with HDAC5. Our results suggest that while αTAT1 may play a role in axon growth in vitro, the increase is not directly due to acetylation of axonal microtubules. Our results also show that HDAC5 overexpression in the axonal cytoplasm does not play a crucial role in axonal regeneration of cultured DRG neurons. We expressed these genes in DRG neurons in adult rats and performed a sciatic nerve crush. We found that axons did not regenerate any better when infected with any of the constructs compared with control animals. Thus, while αTAT1 may be important for axonal growth in vitro, neither αTAT1 nor HDAC5 had an effect in vivo on the regeneration of sciatic nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shen Lin
- Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Noelle A. Sterling
- Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ian P. Junker
- Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Courtney T. Helm
- Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - George M. Smith
- Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation, Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Nishimoto S, Tanaka H, Okamoto M, Okada K, Murase T, Yoshikawa H. Methylcobalamin promotes the differentiation of Schwann cells and remyelination in lysophosphatidylcholine-induced demyelination of the rat sciatic nerve. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:298. [PMID: 26300733 PMCID: PMC4523890 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Schwann cells (SCs) are constituents of the peripheral nervous system. The differentiation of SCs in injured peripheral nerves is critical for regeneration after injury. Methylcobalamin (MeCbl) is a vitamin B12 analog that is necessary for the maintenance of the peripheral nervous system. In this study, we estimated the effect of MeCbl on SCs. We showed that MeCbl downregulated the activity of Erk1/2 and promoted the expression of the myelin basic protein in SCs. In a dorsal root ganglion neuron–SC coculture system, myelination was promoted by MeCbl. In a focal demyelination rat model, MeCbl promoted remyelination and motor and sensory functional regeneration. MeCbl promoted the in vitro differentiation of SCs and in vivo myelination in a rat demyelination model and may be a novel therapy for several types of nervous disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Nishimoto
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Tanaka
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita Japan
| | - Michio Okamoto
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Toyonaka Municipal Hospital, Toyonaka Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Okada
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita Japan ; Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Osaka University Hospital, Suita Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Murase
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita Japan
| | - Hideki Yoshikawa
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita Japan
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Franz S, Weidner N, Blesch A. Gene therapy approaches to enhancing plasticity and regeneration after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2011; 235:62-9. [PMID: 21281633 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2010] [Revised: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
During the past decades, new insights into mechanisms that limit plasticity and functional recovery after spinal cord injury have spurred the development of novel approaches to enhance axonal regeneration and rearrangement of spared circuitry. Gene therapy may provide one means to address mechanisms that underlie the insufficient regenerative response of injured neurons and can also be used to identify factors important for axonal growth. Several genetic approaches aimed to modulate the environment of injured axons, for example by localized expression of growth factors, to enhance axonal sprouting and regeneration and to guide regenerating axons towards their target have been described. In addition, genetic modification of injured neurons via intraparenchymal injection, or via retrograde transport of viral vectors has been used to manipulate the intrinsic growth capacity of injured neurons. In this review we will summarize some of the progress and limitations of cell transplantation and gene therapy to enhance axonal bridging and regeneration across a lesion site, and to maximize the function, collateral sprouting and connectivity of spared axonal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Franz
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Germany
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