1
|
Yang C, Liu G, Chen X, Le W. Cerebellum in Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases: an emerging research frontier. MedComm (Beijing) 2024; 5:e638. [PMID: 39006764 PMCID: PMC11245631 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum is crucial for both motor and nonmotor functions. Alzheimer's disease (AD), alongside other dementias such as vascular dementia (VaD), Lewy body dementia (DLB), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), as well as other neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) like Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease (HD), and spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA), are characterized by specific and non-specific neurodegenerations in central nervous system. Previously, the cerebellum's significance in these conditions was underestimated. However, advancing research has elevated its profile as a critical node in disease pathology. We comprehensively review the existing evidence to elucidate the relationship between cerebellum and the aforementioned diseases. Our findings reveal a growing body of research unequivocally establishing a link between the cerebellum and AD, other forms of dementia, and other NDs, supported by clinical evidence, pathological and biochemical profiles, structural and functional neuroimaging data, and electrophysiological findings. By contrasting cerebellar observations with those from the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, we highlight the cerebellum's distinct role in the disease processes. Furthermore, we also explore the emerging therapeutic potential of targeting cerebellum for the treatment of these diseases. This review underscores the importance of the cerebellum in these diseases, offering new insights into the disease mechanisms and novel therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cui Yang
- Institute of Neurology Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital School of Medicine University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu China
| | - Guangdong Liu
- Institute of Neurology Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital School of Medicine University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu China
| | - Xi Chen
- Institute of Neurology Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital School of Medicine University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu China
| | - Weidong Le
- Institute of Neurology Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital School of Medicine University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Moldovean-Cioroianu NS. Reviewing the Structure-Function Paradigm in Polyglutamine Disorders: A Synergistic Perspective on Theoretical and Experimental Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6789. [PMID: 38928495 PMCID: PMC11204371 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine (polyQ) disorders are a group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the excessive expansion of CAG (cytosine, adenine, guanine) repeats within host proteins. The quest to unravel the complex diseases mechanism has led researchers to adopt both theoretical and experimental methods, each offering unique insights into the underlying pathogenesis. This review emphasizes the significance of combining multiple approaches in the study of polyQ disorders, focusing on the structure-function correlations and the relevance of polyQ-related protein dynamics in neurodegeneration. By integrating computational/theoretical predictions with experimental observations, one can establish robust structure-function correlations, aiding in the identification of key molecular targets for therapeutic interventions. PolyQ proteins' dynamics, influenced by their length and interactions with other molecular partners, play a pivotal role in the polyQ-related pathogenic cascade. Moreover, conformational dynamics of polyQ proteins can trigger aggregation, leading to toxic assembles that hinder proper cellular homeostasis. Understanding these intricacies offers new avenues for therapeutic strategies by fine-tuning polyQ kinetics, in order to prevent and control disease progression. Last but not least, this review highlights the importance of integrating multidisciplinary efforts to advancing research in this field, bringing us closer to the ultimate goal of finding effective treatments against polyQ disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nastasia Sanda Moldovean-Cioroianu
- Institute of Materials Science, Bioinspired Materials and Biosensor Technologies, Kiel University, Kaiserstraße 2, 24143 Kiel, Germany;
- Faculty of Physics, Babeș-Bolyai University, Kogălniceanu 1, RO-400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tejwani L, Ravindra NG, Lee C, Cheng Y, Nguyen B, Luttik K, Ni L, Zhang S, Morrison LM, Gionco J, Xiang Y, Yoon J, Ro H, Haidery F, Grijalva RM, Bae E, Kim K, Martuscello RT, Orr HT, Zoghbi HY, McLoughlin HS, Ranum LPW, Shakkottai VG, Faust PL, Wang S, van Dijk D, Lim J. Longitudinal single-cell transcriptional dynamics throughout neurodegeneration in SCA1. Neuron 2024; 112:362-383.e15. [PMID: 38016472 PMCID: PMC10922326 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegeneration is a protracted process involving progressive changes in myriad cell types that ultimately results in the death of vulnerable neuronal populations. To dissect how individual cell types within a heterogeneous tissue contribute to the pathogenesis and progression of a neurodegenerative disorder, we performed longitudinal single-nucleus RNA sequencing of mouse and human spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) cerebellar tissue, establishing continuous dynamic trajectories of each cell population. Importantly, we defined the precise transcriptional changes that precede loss of Purkinje cells and, for the first time, identified robust early transcriptional dysregulation in unipolar brush cells and oligodendroglia. Finally, we applied a deep learning method to predict disease state accurately and identified specific features that enable accurate distinction of wild-type and SCA1 cells. Together, this work reveals new roles for diverse cerebellar cell types in SCA1 and provides a generalizable analysis framework for studying neurodegeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leon Tejwani
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Neal G Ravindra
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Computer Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Changwoo Lee
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Yubao Cheng
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Billy Nguyen
- University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Kimberly Luttik
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Luhan Ni
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Shupei Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Logan M Morrison
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - John Gionco
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center and the New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Yangfei Xiang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | | | - Hannah Ro
- Yale College, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | | | - Rosalie M Grijalva
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | | | - Kristen Kim
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Regina T Martuscello
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center and the New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Harry T Orr
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hayley S McLoughlin
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA
| | - Laura P W Ranum
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Center for Neurogenetics, College of Medicine, Genetics Institute, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Vikram G Shakkottai
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Phyllis L Faust
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center and the New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Siyuan Wang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - David van Dijk
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Computer Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Janghoo Lim
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Wu Tsai Institute, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Thompson LM, Orr HT. HD and SCA1: Tales from two 30-year journeys since gene discovery. Neuron 2023; 111:3517-3530. [PMID: 37863037 PMCID: PMC10842341 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
One of the more transformative findings in human genetics was the discovery that the expansion of unstable nucleotide repeats underlies a group of inherited neurological diseases. A subset of these unstable repeat neurodegenerative diseases is due to the expansion of a CAG trinucleotide repeat encoding a stretch of glutamines, i.e., the polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat neurodegenerative diseases. Among the CAG/polyQ repeat diseases are Huntington's disease (HD) and spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1), in which the expansions are within widely expressed proteins. Although both HD and SCA1 are autosomal dominantly inherited, and both typically cause mid- to late-life-onset movement disorders with cognitive decline, they each are characterized by distinct clinical characteristics and predominant sites of neuropathology. Importantly, the respective affected proteins, Huntingtin (HTT, HD) and Ataxin 1 (ATXN1, SCA1), have unique functions and biological properties. Here, we review HD and SCA1 with a focus on how their disease-specific and shared features may provide informative insights.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie M Thompson
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Harry T Orr
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul, MN 55455, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Swinter K, Salah D, Rathnayake R, Gunawardena S. PolyQ-Expansion Causes Mitochondria Fragmentation Independent of Huntingtin and Is Distinct from Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)/Mechanical Stress-Mediated Fragmentation Which Results from Cell Death. Cells 2023; 12:2406. [PMID: 37830620 PMCID: PMC10572422 DOI: 10.3390/cells12192406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction has been reported in many Huntington's disease (HD) models; however, it is unclear how these defects occur. Here, we test the hypothesis that excess pathogenic huntingtin (HTT) impairs mitochondrial homeostasis, using Drosophila genetics and pharmacological inhibitors in HD and polyQ-expansion disease models and in a mechanical stress-induced traumatic brain injury (TBI) model. Expression of pathogenic HTT caused fragmented mitochondria compared to normal HTT, but HTT did not co-localize with mitochondria under normal or pathogenic conditions. Expression of pathogenic polyQ (127Q) alone or in the context of Machado Joseph Disease (MJD) caused fragmented mitochondria. While mitochondrial fragmentation was not dependent on the cellular location of polyQ accumulations, the expression of a chaperone protein, excess of mitofusin (MFN), or depletion of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) rescued fragmentation. Intriguingly, a higher concentration of nitric oxide (NO) was observed in polyQ-expressing larval brains and inhibiting NO production rescued polyQ-mediated fragmented mitochondria, postulating that DRP1 nitrosylation could contribute to excess fission. Furthermore, while excess PI3K, which suppresses polyQ-induced cell death, did not rescue polyQ-mediated fragmentation, it did rescue fragmentation caused by mechanical stress/TBI. Together, our observations suggest that pathogenic polyQ alone is sufficient to cause DRP1-dependent mitochondrial fragmentation upstream of cell death, uncovering distinct physiological mechanisms for mitochondrial dysfunction in polyQ disease and mechanical stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Shermali Gunawardena
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sucha M, Benediktova S, Tichanek F, Jedlicka J, Kapl S, Jelinkova D, Purkartova Z, Tuma J, Kuncova J, Cendelin J. Experimental Treatment with Edaravone in a Mouse Model of Spinocerebellar Ataxia 1. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10689. [PMID: 37445867 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Edaravone is a mitochondrially targeted drug with a suggested capability to modify the course of diverse neurological diseases. Nevertheless, edaravone has not been tested yet in the context of spinocerebellar ataxia 1 (SCA1), an incurable neurodegenerative disease characterized mainly by cerebellar disorder, with a strong contribution of inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction. This study aimed to address this gap, exploring the potential of edaravone to slow down SCA1 progression in a mouse knock-in SCA1 model. SCA1154Q/2Q and healthy SCA12Q/2Q mice were administered either edaravone or saline daily for more than 13 weeks. The functional impairments were assessed via a wide spectrum of behavioral assays reflecting motor and cognitive deficits and behavioral abnormalities. Moreover, we used high-resolution respirometry to explore mitochondrial function, and immunohistochemical and biochemical tools to assess the magnitude of neurodegeneration, inflammation, and neuroplasticity. Data were analyzed using (hierarchical) Bayesian regression models, combined with the methods of multivariate statistics. Our analysis pointed out various previously documented neurological and behavioral deficits of SCA1 mice. However, we did not detect any plausible therapeutic effect of edaravone on either behavioral dysfunctions or other disease hallmarks in SCA1 mice. Thus, our results did not provide support for the therapeutic potential of edaravone in SCA1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martina Sucha
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Simona Benediktova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Filip Tichanek
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Jedlicka
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Mitochondrial Laboratory, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Stepan Kapl
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurophysiology, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Dana Jelinkova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Zdenka Purkartova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Tuma
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Kuncova
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Mitochondrial Laboratory, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Cendelin
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 76, 323 00 Pilsen, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rumyantseva A, Popovic M, Trifunovic A. CLPP deficiency ameliorates neurodegeneration caused by impaired mitochondrial protein synthesis. Brain 2022; 145:92-104. [PMID: 35240691 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are essential organelles found in every eukaryotic cell, required to convert food into usable energy. Therefore, it is not surprising that mutations in either mtDNA or nuclear DNA-encoded genes of mitochondrial proteins cause diseases affecting the oxidative phosphorylation system, which are heterogeneous from a clinical, genetic, biochemical and molecular perspective and can affect patients at any age. Despite all this, it is surprising that our understanding of the mechanisms governing mitochondrial gene expression and its associated pathologies remain superficial and therapeutic interventions largely unexplored. We recently showed that loss of the mitochondrial matrix protease caseinolytic protease proteolytic subunit (CLPP) ameliorates phenotypes in cells characterized by defects in oxidative phosphorylation maintenance. Here, we build upon this finding by showing that CLPP depletion is indeed beneficial in vivo for various types of neuronal populations, including Purkinje cells in the cerebellum and cortical and hippocampal neurons in the forebrain, as it strongly improves distinct phenotypes of mitochondria encephalopathy, driven by the deficiency of the mitochondrial aspartyl tRNA synthase DARS2. In the absence of CLPP, neurodegeneration of DARS2-deficient neurons is delayed as they present milder oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction. This in turn leads to a decreased neuroinflammatory response and significantly improved motor functions in both double-deficient models (Purkinje cell-specific or forebrain neuron-specific Dars2/Clpp double knockout mice). We propose that diminished turnover of respiratory complex I caused by the loss of CLPP is behind the improved phenotype in Dars2/Clpp double knockout animals, even though this intervention might not restore respiratory complex I activity but rather improve mitochondrial cristae morphology or help maintain the NAD+/NADH ratio inside mitochondria. These results also open the possibility of targeting CLPP activity in many other mitochondrial encephalopathies characterized by respiratory complex I instability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Rumyantseva
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Milica Popovic
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Trifunovic
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang H, Hong Y, Yang W, Wang R, Yao T, Wang J, Liu K, Yuan H, Xu C, Zhou Y, Li G, Zhang L, Luo H, Zhang X, Du D, Sun H, Zheng Q, Zhang YW, Zhao Y, Zhou Y, Xu H, Wang X. SNX14 deficiency-induced defective axonal mitochondrial transport in Purkinje cells underlies cerebellar ataxia and can be reversed by valproate. Natl Sci Rev 2021; 8:nwab024. [PMID: 34691693 PMCID: PMC8310771 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwab024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in sorting nexin 14 (SNX14) cause autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia 20, which is a form of early-onset cerebellar ataxia that lacks molecular mechanisms and mouse models. We generated Snx14-deficient mouse models and observed severe motor deficits and cell-autonomous Purkinje cell degeneration. SNX14 deficiency disrupted microtubule organization and mitochondrial transport in axons by destabilizing the microtubule-severing enzyme spastin, which is implicated in dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia with cerebellar ataxia, and compromised axonal integrity and mitochondrial function. Axonal transport disruption and mitochondrial dysfunction further led to degeneration of high-energy-demanding Purkinje cells, which resulted in the pathogenesis of cerebellar ataxia. The antiepileptic drug valproate ameliorated motor deficits and cerebellar degeneration in Snx14-deficient mice via the restoration of mitochondrial transport and function in Purkinje cells. Our study revealed an unprecedented role for SNX14-dependent axonal transport in cerebellar ataxia, demonstrated the convergence of SNX14 and spastin in mitochondrial dysfunction, and suggested valproate as a potential therapeutic agent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongfeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yujuan Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Weijie Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Ruimin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Ting Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Jian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Ke Liu
- National Institute for Data Science in Health and Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Huilong Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Chaoqun Xu
- National Institute for Data Science in Health and Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Guanxian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Lishan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Hong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Xian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Dan Du
- Cancer Research Center, Department of Stomatology, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Hao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Qiuyang Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yun-Wu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yingjun Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- National Institute for Data Science in Health and Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Huaxi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Xin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
McIntosh CS, Li D, Wilton SD, Aung-Htut MT. Polyglutamine Ataxias: Our Current Molecular Understanding and What the Future Holds for Antisense Therapies. Biomedicines 2021; 9:1499. [PMID: 34829728 PMCID: PMC8615177 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine (polyQ) ataxias are a heterogenous group of neurological disorders all caused by an expanded CAG trinucleotide repeat located in the coding region of each unique causative gene. To date, polyQ ataxias encompass six disorders: spinocerebellar ataxia types 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 17 and account for a larger group of disorders simply known as polyglutamine disorders, which also includes Huntington's disease. These diseases are typically characterised by progressive ataxia, speech and swallowing difficulties, lack of coordination and gait, and are unfortunately fatal in nature, with the exception of SCA6. All the polyQ spinocerebellar ataxias have a hallmark feature of neuronal aggregations and share many common pathogenic mechanisms, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired proteasomal function, and autophagy impairment. Currently, therapeutic options are limited, with no available treatments that slow or halt disease progression. Here, we discuss the common molecular and clinical presentations of polyQ spinocerebellar ataxias. We will also discuss the promising antisense oligonucleotide therapeutics being developed as treatments for these devastating diseases. With recent advancements and therapeutic approvals of various antisense therapies, it is envisioned that some of the studies reviewed may progress into clinical trials and beyond.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig S. McIntosh
- Molecular Therapy Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Health Futures Institute Murdoch University, Discovery Way, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia; (C.S.M.); (D.L.); (S.D.W.)
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Dunhui Li
- Molecular Therapy Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Health Futures Institute Murdoch University, Discovery Way, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia; (C.S.M.); (D.L.); (S.D.W.)
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Steve D. Wilton
- Molecular Therapy Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Health Futures Institute Murdoch University, Discovery Way, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia; (C.S.M.); (D.L.); (S.D.W.)
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - May T. Aung-Htut
- Molecular Therapy Laboratory, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Health Futures Institute Murdoch University, Discovery Way, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia; (C.S.M.); (D.L.); (S.D.W.)
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Rumyantseva A, Motori E, Trifunovic A. DARS2 is indispensable for Purkinje cell survival and protects against cerebellar ataxia. Hum Mol Genet 2021; 29:2845-2854. [PMID: 32766765 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukoencephalopathy with brain stem and spinal cord involvement and lactate elevation disorder (LBSL) arises from mutations in mitochondrial aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (DARS2) gene. The disease has a childhood or juvenile-onset and is clinically characterized by cerebellar ataxia, cognitive decline and distinct morphological abnormalities upon magnetic resonance imaging. We previously demonstrated that neurons and not adult myelin-producing cells are specifically sensitive to DARS2 loss, hence likely the primary culprit in LBSL disorder. We used conditional Purkinje cell (PCs)-specific Dars2 deletion to elucidate further the cell-type-specific contribution of this class of neurons to the cerebellar impairment observed in LBSL. We show that DARS2 depletion causes a severe mitochondrial dysfunction concomitant with a massive loss of PCs by the age of 15 weeks, thereby rapidly deteriorating motor skills. Our findings conclusively show that DARS2 is indispensable for PC survival and highlights the central role of neuroinflammation in DARS2-related PC degeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Rumyantseva
- Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Aging, Medical Faculty, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Centre for Molecular Medicine (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne D-50931 , Germany
| | - Elisa Motori
- Department of Mitochondrial Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne D-50931, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Trifunovic
- Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Aging, Medical Faculty, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Centre for Molecular Medicine (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne D-50931 , Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Neves-Carvalho A, Duarte-Silva S, Teixeira-Castro A, Maciel P. Polyglutamine spinocerebellar ataxias: emerging therapeutic targets. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2020; 24:1099-1119. [PMID: 32962458 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2020.1827394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Six of the most frequent dominantly inherited spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) worldwide - SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, SCA7, and SCA17 - are caused by an expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the corresponding proteins. While the identification of the causative mutation has advanced knowledge on the pathogenesis of polyQ SCAs, effective therapeutics able to mitigate the severe clinical manifestation of these highly incapacitating disorders are not yet available. AREAS COVERED This review provides a comprehensive and critical perspective on well-established and emerging therapeutic targets for polyQ SCAs; it aims to inspire prospective drug discovery efforts. EXPERT OPINION The landscape of polyQ SCAs therapeutic targets and strategies includes (1) the mutant genes and proteins themselves, (2) enhancement of endogenous protein quality control responses, (3) abnormal protein-protein interactions of the mutant proteins, (4) disturbed neuronal function, (5) mitochondrial function, energy availability and oxidative stress, and (6) glial dysfunction, growth factor or hormone imbalances. Challenges include gaining a clearer definition of therapeutic targets for the drugs in clinical development, the discovery of novel drug-like molecules for challenging key targets, and the attainment of a stronger translation of preclinical findings to the clinic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Neves-Carvalho
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho , Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory , Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Sara Duarte-Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho , Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory , Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Andreia Teixeira-Castro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho , Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory , Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho , Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory , Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Motori E, Atanassov I, Kochan SMV, Folz-Donahue K, Sakthivelu V, Giavalisco P, Toni N, Puyal J, Larsson NG. Neuronal metabolic rewiring promotes resilience to neurodegeneration caused by mitochondrial dysfunction. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaba8271. [PMID: 32923630 PMCID: PMC7455195 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aba8271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegeneration in mitochondrial disorders is considered irreversible because of limited metabolic plasticity in neurons, yet the cell-autonomous implications of mitochondrial dysfunction for neuronal metabolism in vivo are poorly understood. Here, we profiled the cell-specific proteome of Purkinje neurons undergoing progressive OXPHOS deficiency caused by disrupted mitochondrial fusion dynamics. We found that mitochondrial dysfunction triggers a profound rewiring of the proteomic landscape, culminating in the sequential activation of precise metabolic programs preceding cell death. Unexpectedly, we identified a marked induction of pyruvate carboxylase (PCx) and other anaplerotic enzymes involved in replenishing tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. Suppression of PCx aggravated oxidative stress and neurodegeneration, showing that anaplerosis is protective in OXPHOS-deficient neurons. Restoration of mitochondrial fusion in end-stage degenerating neurons fully reversed these metabolic hallmarks, thereby preventing cell death. Our findings identify a previously unappreciated pathway conferring resilience to mitochondrial dysfunction and show that neurodegeneration can be reversed even at advanced disease stages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E. Motori
- Department of Mitochondrial Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Corresponding author. , (E.M.); (N.-G.L.)
| | - I. Atanassov
- Proteomics Core Facility, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - S. M. V. Kochan
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - K. Folz-Donahue
- FACS & Imaging Core Facility, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - V. Sakthivelu
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - P. Giavalisco
- Metabolomics Core Facility, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - N. Toni
- Center for Psychiatric Neurosciences, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne University, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - J. Puyal
- Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - N.-G. Larsson
- Department of Mitochondrial Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing–Karolinska Institutet Laboratory, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Corresponding author. , (E.M.); (N.-G.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Tichanek F, Salomova M, Jedlicka J, Kuncova J, Pitule P, Macanova T, Petrankova Z, Tuma Z, Cendelin J. Hippocampal mitochondrial dysfunction and psychiatric-relevant behavioral deficits in spinocerebellar ataxia 1 mouse model. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5418. [PMID: 32214165 PMCID: PMC7096488 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62308-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia 1 (SCA1) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease associated with cerebellar degeneration and motor deficits. However, many patients also exhibit neuropsychiatric impairments such as depression and apathy; nevertheless, the existence of a causal link between the psychiatric symptoms and SCA1 neuropathology remains controversial. This study aimed to explore behavioral deficits in a knock-in mouse SCA1 (SCA1154Q/2Q) model and to identify the underlying neuropathology. We found that the SCA1 mice exhibit previously undescribed behavioral impairments such as increased anxiety- and depressive-like behavior and reduced prepulse inhibition and cognitive flexibility. Surprisingly, non-motor deficits characterize the early SCA1 stage in mice better than does ataxia. Moreover, the SCA1 mice exhibit significant hippocampal atrophy with decreased plasticity-related markers and markedly impaired neurogenesis. Interestingly, the hippocampal atrophy commences earlier than the cerebellar degeneration and directly reflects the individual severity of some of the behavioral deficits. Finally, mitochondrial respirometry suggests profound mitochondrial dysfunction in the hippocampus, but not in the cerebellum of the young SCA1 mice. These findings imply the essential role of hippocampal impairments, associated with profound mitochondrial dysfunction, in SCA1 behavioral deficits. Moreover, they underline the view of SCA1 as a complex neurodegenerative disease and suggest new avenues in the search for novel SCA1 therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Filip Tichanek
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia. .,Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia.
| | - Martina Salomova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia.,Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Jan Jedlicka
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia.,Mitochondrial Laboratory, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Jitka Kuncova
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia.,Mitochondrial Laboratory, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Pavel Pitule
- Laboratory of Tumor Biology, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Tereza Macanova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Zuzana Petrankova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Zdenek Tuma
- Laboratory of Proteomics, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| | - Jan Cendelin
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia.,Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czechia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bermúdez-Guzmán L, Leal A. DNA repair deficiency in neuropathogenesis: when all roads lead to mitochondria. Transl Neurodegener 2019; 8:14. [PMID: 31110700 PMCID: PMC6511134 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-019-0156-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in DNA repair enzymes can cause two neurological clinical manifestations: a developmental impairment and a degenerative disease. Polynucleotide kinase 3'-phosphatase (PNKP) is an enzyme that is actively involved in DNA repair in both single and double strand break repair systems. Mutations in this protein or others in the same pathway are responsible for a complex group of diseases with a broad clinical spectrum. Besides, mitochondrial dysfunction also has been consolidated as a hallmark of brain degeneration. Here we provide evidence that supports a shared role between mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA repair defects in the pathogenesis of the nervous system. As models, we analyze PNKP-related disorders, focusing on Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and ataxia. A better understanding of the molecular dynamics of this relationship could provide improved diagnosis and treatment for neurological diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Bermúdez-Guzmán
- Section of Genetics and Biotechnology, School of Biology, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501 Costa Rica
| | - Alejandro Leal
- Section of Genetics and Biotechnology, School of Biology, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501 Costa Rica
- Neuroscience Research Center, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| |
Collapse
|