Intra-articular etanercept attenuates pain and hypoxia from TMJ loading in the rat

Forced mouth opening induces post-traumatic hyperalgesia and associated peripheral sensitization after temporomandibular joints injury in mice

Temporomandibular disorder (TMD) is the most prevalent painful condition in the craniofacial area. The pathophysiology of TMD is not fully understood, and it is necessary to understand pathophysiology underlying painful TMD conditions to develop more effective treatment methods. Recent studies suggested that external or intrinsic trauma to TMJ is associated with chronic TMD in patients. Here, we investigated the effects of the TMJ trauma through forced-mouth opening (FMO) in mice to determine pain behaviors and peripheral sensitization of trigeminal nociceptors. FMO increased mechanical hyperalgesia assessed by von Frey test, spontaneous pain-like behaviors assessed by mouse grimace scale, and anxiety-like behaviors assessed by open-field test. In vivo GCaMP Ca 2+ imaging of intact trigeminal ganglia (TG) showed increased spontaneous Ca 2+ activity and mechanical hypersensitivity of TG neurons in the FMO compared to the sham group. Ca 2+ responses evoked by cold, heat, and capsaicin stimuli were also increased. FMO-induced hyperalgesia and neuronal hyperactivities were not sex dependent. TG neurons sensitized following FMO were primarily small to medium-sized nociceptive afferents. Consistently, most TMJ afferents in the TG were small-sized peptidergic neurons expressing calcitonin gene-related peptides, whereas nonpeptidergic TMJ afferents were relatively low. FMO-induced intraneural inflammation in the surrounding tissues of the TMJ indicates potentially novel mechanisms of peripheral sensitization following TMJ injury. These results suggest that the TMJ injury leads to persistent post-traumatic hyperalgesia associated with peripheral sensitization of trigeminal nociceptors.

Electroacupuncture Alleviates Dry Eye Ocular Pain Through TNF-ɑ Mediated ERK1/2/P2X3R Signaling Pathway in SD Rats

Purpose

This study aimed to examine electroacupuncture's influence on ocular pain and its potential modulation of the TNF-ɑ mediated ERK1/2/P2X3R signaling pathway in dry eye-induced rat models.

Methods

Male Sprague-Dawley rats with induced dry eye, achieved through extraorbital lacrimal gland removal, were treated with electroacupuncture. Comprehensive metrics such as the corneal mechanical perception threshold, palpebral fissure height, eyeblink frequency, eye wiping duration, behavioral changes in the open field test, and the forced swimming test were employed. Additionally, morphological changes in microglia and neurons were observed. Expression patterns of key markers, TNF-ɑ, TNFR1, p-ERK1/2, and P2X3R, in the trigeminal ganglion (TG) and spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis (SpVc) regions, were studied with etanercept serving as a control to decipher the biochemistry of electroacupuncture's therapeutic effects.

Results

Electroacupuncture treatment demonstrated a notable decrease in the corneal mechanical perception threshold, improvement in palpebral fissure height, and significant reductions in both eyeblink frequency and eye wiping duration. Moreover, it exhibited a promising role in anxiety alleviation. Notably, the technique effectively diminished ocular pain by curbing microglial and neuronal activation in the TG and SpVc regions. Furthermore, it potently downregulated TNF-ɑ, TNFR1, p-ERK1/2, and P2X3R expression within these regions.

Conclusion

Electroacupuncture attenuated damage to sensory nerve pathways, reduced pain, and eased anxiety in dry eye-afflicted rats. The findings suggest a crucial role of TNF-ɑ mediated ERK1/2/P2X3R signaling pathway inhibition by electroacupuncture in these benefits.

Potential pathological and molecular mechanisms of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis

Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ OA) is a progressive degenerative disease of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). The unclear etiology and mechanisms of TMJ OA bring great difficulties to early diagnosis and effective treatment, causing enormous burdens to patients' life and social economics. In this narrative review, we summarized the main pathological changes of TMJ OA, including inflammatory responses, degeneration of extracellular matrix (ECM), abnormal cell biological behaviors (apoptosis, autophagy, and differentiation) in TMJ tissue, and aberrant angiogenesis. All pathological features are closely linked to each other, forming a vicious cycle in the process of TMJ OA, which results in prolonged disease duration and makes it difficult to cure. Various molecules and signaling pathways are involved in TMJ OA pathogenesis, including nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERKs) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathways et al. One molecule or pathway can contribute to several pathological changes, and the crosstalk between different molecules and pathways can further lead to a complicated condition TMJ OA. TMJ OA has miscellaneous etiology, complex clinical status, depressed treatment results, and poor prognosis. Therefore, novel in-vivo and in-vitro models, novel medicine, materials, and approaches for therapeutic procedures might be helpful for further investigation of TMJ OA. Furthermore, the role of genetic factors in TMJ OA needs to be elucidated to establish more reasonable and effective clinical strategies for diagnosing and treating TMJ OA.

The degeneration-pain relationship in the temporomandibular joint: Current understandings and rodent models

Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) represent a group of musculoskeletal conditions involving the temporomandibular joints (TMJ), the masticatory muscles and associated structures. Painful TMD are highly prevalent and conditions afflict 4% of US adults annually. TMD include heterogenous musculoskeletal pain conditions, such as myalgia, arthralgia, and myofascial pain. A subpopulations of TMD patients show structural changes in TMJ, including disc displacement or degenerative joint diseases (DJD). DJD is a slowly progressing, degenerative disease of the TMJ characterized by cartilage degradation and subchondral bone remodeling. Patients with DJD often develop pain (TMJ osteoarthritis; TMJ OA), but do not always have pain (TMJ osteoarthrosis). Therefore, pain symptoms are not always associated with altered TMJ structures, which suggests that a causal relationship between TMJ degeneration and pain is unclear. Multiple animal models have been developed for determining altered joint structure and pain phenotypes in response to various TMJ injuries. Rodent models of TMJOA and pain include injections to induce inflammation or cartilage destruction, sustained opening of the oral cavity, surgical resection of the articular disc, transgenic approaches to knockout or overexpress key genes, and an integrative approach with superimposed emotional stress or comorbidities. In rodents, TMJ pain and degeneration occur during partially overlapping time periods in these models, which suggests that common biological factors may mediate TMJ pain and degeneration over different time courses. While substances such as intra-articular pro-inflammatory cytokines commonly cause pain and joint degeneration, it remains unclear whether pain or nociceptive activities are causally associated with structural degeneration of TMJ and whether structural degeneration of TMJ is necessary for producing persistent pain. A thorough understanding of the determining factors of pain-structure relationships of TMJ during the onset, progression, and chronification by adopting novel approaches and models should improve the ability to simultaneously treat TMJ pain and TMJ degeneration.

Mechanism of HIFs in osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common disabling disease which has a high incidence rate in the elderly. Studies have found that many factors are involved in the pathogenesis of OA. Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) are core regulators that induce hypoxia genes, repair the cellular oxygen environment, and play an important role in the treatment of OA. For example, HIF-1α can maintain the stability of the articular cartilage matrix, HIF-2α is able to cause chondrocyte apoptosis and intensify in-flammatory response, and HIF-3α may be the target gene of HIF-1α and HIF-2α, thereby playing a negative regulatory role. This review examines the mechanism of HIFs in cartilage extracellular matrix degradation, apoptosis, inflammatory reaction, autophagy and then further expounds on the roles of HIFs in OA, consequently providing theoretical support for the pathogenesis of OA and a new target for OA treatment.

Painful temporomandibular joint overloading induces structural remodeling in the pericellular matrix of that joint's chondrocytes

Mechanical stress to the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is an important factor in cartilage degeneration, with both clinical and preclinical studies suggesting that repeated TMJ overloading could contribute to pain, inflammation, and/or structural damage in the joint. However, the relationship between pain severity and early signs of cartilage matrix microstructural dysregulation is not understood, limiting the advancement of diagnoses and treatments for temporomandibular joint-osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA). Changes in the pericellular matrix (PCM) surrounding chondrocytes may be early indicators of OA. A rat model of TMJ pain induced by repeated jaw loading (1 h/day for 7 days) was used to compare the extent of PCM modulation for different loading magnitudes with distinct pain profiles (3.5N-persistent pain, 2N-resolving pain, or unloaded controls-no pain) and macrostructural changes previously indicated by Mankin scoring. Expression of PCM structural molecules, collagen VI and aggrecan NITEGE neo-epitope, were evaluated at Day 15 by immunohistochemistry within TMJ fibrocartilage and compared between pain conditions. Pericellular collagen VI levels increased at Day 15 in both the 2N (p = 0.003) and 3.5N (p = 0.042) conditions compared to unloaded controls. PCM width expanded to a similar extent for both loading conditions at Day 15 (2N, p < 0.001; 3.5N, p = 0.002). Neo-epitope expression increased in the 3.5N group over levels in the 2N group (p = 0.041), indicating pericellular changes that were not identified in the same groups by Mankin scoring of the pericellular region. Although remodeling occurs in both pain conditions, the presence of pericellular catabolic neo-epitopes may be involved in the macrostructural changes and behavioral sensitivity observed in persistent TMJ pain.

Mouse Models of Osteoarthritis: A Summary of Models and Outcomes Assessment

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multidimensional health problem and a common chronic disease. It has a substantial impact onpatient quality of life and is a common cause of pain and mobility issues in older adults. The functional limitations, lack of curative treatments, and cost to society all demonstrate the need for translational and clinical research. The use of OA models in mice is important for achieving a better understanding of the disease. Models with clinical relevance are needed to achieve 2 main goals: to assess the impact of the OA disease (pain and function) and to study the efficacy of potential treatments. However, few OA models include practical strategies for functional assessment of the mice. OA signs in mice incorporate complex interrelations between pain and dysfunction. The current review provides a comprehensive compilation of mousemodels of OA and animal evaluations that include static and dynamic clinical assessment of the mice, merging evaluationof pain and function by using automatic and noninvasive techniques. These new techniques allow simultaneous recordingof spontaneous activity from thousands of home cages and also monitor environment conditions. Technologies such as videographyand computational approaches can also be used to improve pain assessment in rodents but these new tools must first be validated experimentally. An example of a new tool is the digital ventilated cage, which is an automated home-cage monitor that records spontaneous activity in the cages.

Measurement properties of grimace scales for pain assessment in non-human mammals: a systematic review

ABSTRACT

Facial expressions of pain have been identified in several animal species. The aim of this systematic review was to provide evidence on the measurement properties of grimace scales for pain assessment. The protocol was registered (SyRF#21-Nov-2019) and the study is reported according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies reporting the development, validation, and the assessment of measurement properties of grimace scales were included. Data extraction and assessment were performed by two investigators, following the Consensus-based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) guidelines. Six categories of measurement properties were assessed: internal consistency, reliability, measurement error, criterion and construct validity, and responsiveness. Overall strength of evidence (high, moderate, low) of each instrument was based on methodological quality, number of studies and studies' findings. Twelve scales for nine species were included (mice, rats, rabbits, horses, piglets, sheep/lamb, ferrets, cats and donkeys). Considerable variability regarding their development and measurement properties was observed. The Mouse, Rat, Horse and Feline Grimace Scales exhibited high level of evidence. The Rabbit, Lamb, Piglet and Ferret Grimace Scales and Sheep Pain Facial Expression Scale exhibited moderate level of evidence. The Sheep Grimace Scale, EQUUS-FAP and EQUUS-Donkey-FAP exhibited low level of evidence for measurement properties. Construct validity was the most reported measurement property. Reliability and other forms of validity have been understudied. This systematic review identified gaps in knowledge on the measurement properties of grimace scales. Further studies should focus on improving psychometric testing, instrument refinement and the use of grimace scales for pain assessment in non-human mammals.

Increased substance P and synaptic remodeling occur in the trigeminal sensory system with sustained osteoarthritic temporomandibular joint sensitivity

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.

Increased substance P and a loss of inhibitory synapses occurs within the brain's trigeminal sensory system with persistent, but not transient, temporomandibular joint sensitivity.

Introduction:

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain is among the most prevalent musculoskeletal conditions and can result from atypical joint loading. Although TMJ pain is typically self-resolving, 15% of patients develop chronic TMJ pain that is recalcitrant to therapy and may be attributed to changes in pain processing centers. Although TMJ overloading induces pain and osteoarthritis, whether neuronal modifications in the trigeminal sensory system contribute to persistent TMJ pain is unknown.

Objective:

This study investigates changes in excitatory neuropeptides and synaptic transmission proteins in cases of transient and persistent TMJ sensitivity in a rat model.

Methods:

Rats underwent repeated jaw loading that produces transient (2N-load) or persistent (3.5N-load) sensitivity. In both groups, immunolabeling was used to assess substance P in the spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis (Sp5C) and glutamate transporter 1 in the ventroposteriomedial thalamus early after loading. Synaptosomal Western blots were used to measure synaptic proteins in the caudal medulla and thalamus at a later time after loading.

Results:

Substance P increases transiently in the Sp5C early after loading that induces persistent sensitivity. However, glutamate transporter 1 is unchanged in the ventroposteriomedial thalamus. At a later time, synaptosomal Western blots show loss of the presynaptic tethering protein, synapsin, and the inhibitory scaffolding protein, gephyrin, in the thalamus with persistent, but not transient, sensitivity. No changes are identified in synapsin, phosphorylated synapsin, homer, or gephyrin in the caudal medulla.

Conclusions:

Substance P in the Sp5C and later loss of inhibitory synapses in the thalamus likely contribute to, or indicate, persistent TMJ pain.

An Update on Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Centered Therapies in Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis

Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA) is a degenerative disease characterized by cartilage degeneration, disrupted subchondral bone remodeling, and synovitis, seriously affecting the quality of life of patients with chronic pain and functional disabilities. Current treatments for TMJOA are mainly symptomatic therapies without reliable long-term efficacy, due to the limited self-renewal capability of the condyle and the poorly elucidated pathogenesis of TMJOA. Recently, there has been increased interest in cellular therapies for osteoarthritis and TMJ regeneration. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), self-renewing and multipotent progenitor cells, play a promising role in TMJOA treatment. Derived from a variety of tissues, MSCs exert therapeutic effects through diverse mechanisms, including chondrogenic differentiation; fibrocartilage regeneration; and trophic, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory effects. Here, we provide an overview of the therapeutic roles of various tissue-specific MSCs in osteoarthritic TMJ or TMJ regenerative tissue engineering, with an additional focus on joint-resident stem cells and other cellular therapies, such as exosomes and adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF). Additionally, we summarized the updated pathogenesis of TMJOA to provide a better understanding of the pathological mechanisms of cellular therapies. Although limitations exist, MSC-centered therapies still provide novel, innovative approaches for TMJOA treatment.

A Systematic Review of Rat Models With Temporomandibular Osteoarthritis Suitable for the Study of Emerging Prolonged Intra-Articular Drug Delivery Systems

PURPOSE

Development of minimally invasive therapies for temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA) has focused on drug intra-articular injections to avoid the systemic adverse effects experienced when these substances are administered orally. Therefore, we performed a systematic review to answer the question "Which method of induction of a TMJOA-related pain model in rats leads to prolonged painful symptoms, allowing the best assessment of a sustained drug delivery system?"

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Following the PRISMA guidelines, we searched MEDLINE for papers published from 1994 to July 2020 on a TMJ arthritis model using rats. We identified the means of pain induction and of nociception assessment. We assessed protocol bias using an adaptation of the QUADAS-2 tool. Animal selection, the reference standard method of pain assessment, applicability of a statistical assessment, and flow and timing were assessed.

RESULTS

Of the 59 full papers we reviewed, 41 performed no pain assessment after the first 7 days following induction of the TMJ-related pain model. We eventually identified 18 long-term TMJOA-related pain models. Pain was induced by injection of toxic substances, most commonly Freund's complete adjuvant (50 μg per 50 μl), formalin at various concentrations, or monosodium iodoacetate (0,5 mg per 50 μl), into the TMJ, or by physical methods. Few studies reported data on pain after 21 days of follow-up. Heterogeneity of induction methods, pain assessment methods, and flow and timing biases precluded a meta-analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Given that pain is 1 of the main symptoms of TMJOA, experimental study protocols should include long-term pain assessment.

Comprehensive Management of Rheumatic Diseases Affecting the Temporomandibular Joint

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is a synovial joint and thus is vulnerable to the afflictions that may affect other joints in the fields of rheumatology and orthopedics. Too often temporomandibular complaints are seen strictly as dental or orofacial concerns. Similarly, patients with known rheumatic disease may not have their TMJs included in routine screening and monitoring protocols. The purpose of this review is to highlight the rheumatic conditions likely to affect the TMJ and outline medical and surgical management in these patients with a focus on the need for continued patient reassessment and monitoring.

A bilayered scaffold with segregated hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity enables reconstruction of goat hierarchical temporomandibular joint condyle cartilage

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) supports chewing, talking or other daily oral activities. So far, it still remains a great challenge to treat the defected TMJ condyle cartilage through tissue engineering technology. Herein, a bilayered scaffold is designed to fully reconstruct the different cartilage matrices of TMJ condyle under same induction condition. The bilayered scaffold with segregated hydrophobicity-hydrophilicity in top and bottom layer is prepared from a low and high content of polyethylene glycol (PEG) crosslinked poly (L-glutamic acid)-g-polycaprolactone (PLGA-g-PCL). The hydrophobic aggregates in top layer support the adhesion and spread of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), thus inducing the differentation towards fibrocartilage; while aggregates (spheroids) are formed on the hydrophlic bottom layer, showing a preferable hyaline differentiation pathway under same chondrogenic induction in vitro. After 14 d in vitro induction, the scaffold/BMSCs construct is implanted in goat TMJ condyle defects. The post-operative outcome after 2 months demonstrates that the defects are fully covered by neo-cartilage. And the regenerated hierarchical TMJ condyle cartilage perfectly consist of ordered fibrocartilage and hyaline cartilage, which is same as natural condyle cartilage. These results corroborate that this bilayered scaffold with segregated hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity carrying induced BMSCs is a promising for treatment of TMJ condyle cartilage defects.

Intra-articular collagenase in the spinal facet joint induces pain, DRG neuron dysregulation and increased MMP-1 absent evidence of joint destruction

Degeneration is a hallmark of painful joint disease and is mediated by many proteases that degrade joint tissues, including collagenases. We hypothesized that purified bacterial collagenase would initiate nociceptive cascades in the joint by degrading the capsular ligament's matrix and activating innervating pain fibers. Intra-articular collagenase in the rat facet joint was investigated for its effects on behavioral sensitivity, joint degeneration, and nociceptive pathways in the peripheral and central nervous systems. In parallel, a co-culture collagen gel model of the ligament was used to evaluate effects of collagenase on microscale changes to the collagen fibers and embedded neurons. Collagenase induced sensitivity within one day, lasting for 3 weeks (p < 0.001) but did not alter ligament structure, cartilage health, or chondrocyte homeostasis. Yet, nociceptive mediators were increased in the periphery (substance P, pERK, and MMP-1; p ≤ 0.039) and spinal cord (substance P and MMP-1; p ≤ 0.041). The collagen loss (p = 0.008) induced by exposing co-cultures to collagenase was accompanied by altered neuronal activity (p = 0.002) and elevated neuronal MMP-1 (p < 0.001), suggesting microscale collagen degradation mediates sensitivity in vivo. The induction of sustained sensitivity and nociception without joint damage may explain the clinical disconnect in which symptomatic joint pain patients present without radiographic evidence of joint destruction.