Structure elucidation of ACE-inhibitory and antithrombotic peptides isolated from mackerel skin gelatine hydrolysates

Nutrition and Cardiovascular Disease: The Potential Role of Marine Bioactive Proteins and Peptides in Thrombosis Prevention

Thrombus and cardiovascular diseases pose a significant health threat, and dietary interventions have shown promising potential in reducing the incidence of these diseases. Marine bioactive proteins and peptides have been extensively studied for their antithrombotic properties. They can inhibit platelet activation and aggregation by binding to key receptors on the platelet surface. Additionally, they can competitively anchor to critical enzyme sites, leading to the inhibition of coagulation factors. Marine microorganisms also offer alternative sources for the development of novel fibrinolytic proteins, which can help dissolve blood clots. The advancements in technologies, such as targeted hydrolysis, specific purification, and encapsulation, have provided a solid foundation for the industrialization of bioactive peptides. These techniques enable precise control over the production and delivery of bioactive peptides, enhancing their efficacy and safety. However, it is important to note that further research and clinical studies are needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential of marine bioactive proteins and peptides in mitigating thrombotic events. The challenges and future application perspectives of these bioactive peptides also need to be explored.

Improving the Sustainability of Processing By-Products: Extraction and Recent Biological Activities of Collagen Peptides

Society and consumers are increasingly concerned about food safety and the sustainability of food production systems. A significant amount of by-products and discards are generated during the processing of aquatic animals, which still needs to be fully utilized by the food industry. The management and sustainable use of these resources are essential to avoiding environmental pollution and resource waste. These by-products are rich in biologically active proteins, which can be converted into peptides by enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation treatment. Therefore, exploring the extraction of collagen peptides from these by-products using an enzymatic hydrolysis technology has attracted a wide range of attention from numerous researchers. Collagen peptides have been found to possess multiple biological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antitumor, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, and anti-inflammatory properties. These properties can enhance the physiological functions of organisms and make collagen peptides useful as ingredients in food, pharmaceuticals, or cosmetics. This paper reviews the general methods for extracting collagen peptides from various processing by-products of aquatic animals, including fish skin, scales, bones, and offal. It also summarizes the functional activities of collagen peptides as well as their applications.

Novel angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides from tuna byproducts—milts: Preparation, characterization, molecular docking study, and antioxidant function on H2O2-damaged human umbilical vein endothelial cells

To prepare peptides with high angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory (ACEi) activity, Alcalase was screened from five proteases and employed to prepare protein hydrolysate (TMH) of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) milts. Subsequently, 10 novel ACEi peptides were isolated from the high-ACEi activity TMH and identified as Tyr-Asp-Asp (YDD), Thr-Arg-Glu (TRE), Arg-Asp-Tyr (RDY), Thr-Glu-Arg-Met (TERM), Asp-Arg-Arg-Tyr-Gly (DRRYG), Ile-Cys-Tyr (ICY), Leu-Ser-Phe-Arg (LSFR), Gly-Val-Arg-Phe (GVRF), Lys-Leu-Tyr-Ala-Leu-Phe (KLYALF), and Ile-Tyr-Ser-Pro (IYSP) with molecular weights of 411.35, 404.41, 452.45, 535.60, 665.69, 397.48, 521.61, 477.55, 753.91, and 478.53 Da, respectively. Among them, the IC₅₀ values of ICY, LSFR, and IYSP on ACE were 0.48, 0.59, and 0.76 mg/mL, respectively. The significant ACEi activity of ICY, LSFR, and IYSP with affinities of −7.0, −8.5, and −8.3 kcal/mol mainly attributed to effectively combining with the ACEi active sites through hydrogen bonding, electrostatic force, and hydrophobic interaction. Moreover, ICY, LSFR, and IYSP could positively influence the production of nitric oxide (NO) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) secretion in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and weaken the adverse impact of norepinephrine (NE) on the production of NO and ET-1. In addition, ICY, LSFR, and IYSP could provide significant protection to HUVECs against H₂O₂ damage by increasing antioxidase levels to decrease the contents of reactive oxide species and malondialdehyde. Therefore, the ACEi peptides of ICY, LSFR, and IYSP are beneficial functional molecules for healthy foods against hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.

Preparation, Characterization, and Cytoprotective Effects on HUVECs of Fourteen Novel Angiotensin-I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Peptides From Protein Hydrolysate of Tuna Processing By-Products

To effectively utilize skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) processing by-products to prepare peptides with high angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory (ACEi) activity, Neutrase was selected from five kinds of protease for hydrolyzing skipjack tuna dark muscle, and its best hydrolysis conditions were optimized as enzyme dose of 1.6%, pH 6.7, and temperature of 50°C using single factor and response surface experiments. Subsequently, 14 novel ACEi peptides were prepared from the high ACEi protein hydrolysate and identified as TE, AG, MWN, MEKS, VK, MQR, MKKS, VKRT, IPK, YNY, LPRS, FEK, IRR, and WERGE. MWN, MEKS, MKKS, and LPRS displayed significantly ACEi activity with IC₅₀ values of 0.328 ± 0.035, 0.527 ± 0.030, 0.269 ± 0.006, and 0.495 ± 0.024 mg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, LPRS showed the highest increasing ability on nitric oxide (NO) production among four ACEi peptides combining the direct increase and reversing the negative influence of norepinephrine (NE), and MKKS showed the highest ability on directly decreasing and reversing the side effects of NE on the secretion level of endothelin-1 (ET-1) among four ACEi peptides. These findings demonstrate that seafood by-product proteins are potential ACEi peptide sources and prepared ACEi peptides from skipjack tuna dark muscle, which are beneficial components for functional food against hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.

Sustainable Upcycling of Fisheries and Aquaculture Wastes Using Fish-Derived Cold-Adapted Proteases

The fisheries and aquaculture industries are some of the major economic sectors in the world. However, these industries generate significant amounts of wastes that need to be properly managed to avoid serious health and environmental issues. Recent advances in marine waste valorization indicate that fish waste biomass represents an abundant source of high-value biomolecules including enzymes, functional proteins, bioactive peptides, and omega-3 rich oils. Enzyme-assisted processes, for the recovery of these value-added biomolecules, have gained interest over chemical-based processes due to their cost-effectiveness as well as their green and eco-friendly aspects. Currently, the majority of commercially available proteases that are used to recover value-added compounds from fisheries and aquaculture wastes are mesophilic and/or thermophilic that require significant energy input and can lead to unfavorable reactions (i.e., oxidation). Cold-adapted proteases extracted from cold-water fish species, on the other hand, are active at low temperatures but unstable at higher temperatures which makes them interesting from both environmental and economic points of view by upcycling fish waste as well as by offering substantial energy savings. This review provides a general overview of cold-adapted proteolytic enzymes from cold-water fish species and highlights the opportunities they offer in the valorization of fisheries and aquaculture wastes.

An advanced strategy for efficient recycling of bovine bone: Preparing high-valued bone powder via instant catapult steam-explosion

As the major byproduct of meat processing, bovine bone are produced in large amounts annually. However, the inefficient utilization with low-added value resulted in serious resource waste. The study aims to prepare high-value bovine bone power (BBP) via instant catapult steam-explosion (ICSE) treatment, taking ball milling (BM) method as control. Results showed that ICSE treatment deconstructed bovine bone with more holes emerging, and effectively promoted mineral dissolution and protein degradation while reduced energy consumption. Compared with BM-BBP, ICSE-BBP possessed more protein and essential minerals, presenting in regular elliptical shapes with narrow distribution of particle size (0.1 ∼ 40 μm), and owned better solution stability and protein solubility. ICSE-BBP also exhibited higher mineral release and protein digestibility during GI digestion while revealed no obvious cytotoxicity, indicating the potential applicability in nutrition-fortified foods. Taken together, ICSE technology holds promise in reusing bovine bone, providing an efficient and eco-friendly process for BBP industrial production.

Collagen-Based Bioactive Bromelain Hydrolysate from Salt-Cured Cod Skin

Considerable amounts of fish processing by-products are discarded each year. About 30% of this material may be skin and bone. Fish skin has more than 80% of its total protein content as collagen. Furthermore, in recent years, there has been a growing demand for collagen-based peptides due to their beneficial health effects. So, the objective of the present study was to optimise the obtaining bioactive hydrolysates from salt-cured cod skin using the protease Bromelain at 0.5% (w/w) concentration. This study developed a sustainable process that consumes less time and energy and uses an alternative source as raw material. In addition, bromelain allows hydrolysates with important antioxidant (ORAC, 514 μmol Trolox Equivalent/g protein) and antihypertensive activities (inhibition of ACE, IC50 of 166 μg protein/mL) as well as excellent biocompatibility with dermal and subcutaneous cells.

The Pro-Gly or Hyp-Gly Containing Peptides from Absorbates of Fish Skin Collagen Hydrolysates Inhibit Platelet Aggregation and Target P2Y12 Receptor by Molecular Docking

Previous studies found that the collagen hydrolysates of fish skin have antiplatelet activity, but this component remained unknown. In this study, eleven peptides were isolated and identified in the absorbates of Alcalase-hydrolysates and Protamex®-hydrolysates of skin collagen of H. Molitrix by reverse-phase C18 column and HPLC-MS/MS. Nine of them contained a Pro-Gly (PG) or Hyp-Gly (OG) sequence and significantly inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation in vitro, which suggested that the PG(OG) sequence is the core sequence of collagen peptides with antiplatelet activity. Among them, OGSA has the strongest inhibiting activities against ADP-induced platelet aggregation in vitro (IC50 = 0.63 mM), and OGSA inhibited the thrombus formation in rats at a dose of 200 μM/kg.bw with no risk of bleeding. The molecular docking results implied that the OG-containing peptides might target the P2Y12 receptor and form hydrogen bonds with the key sites Cys97, Ser101, and Lys179. As the sequence PG(OG) is abundant in the collagen amino acid sequence of H. Molitrix, the collagen hydrolysates of H. Molitrix might have great potential for being developed as dietary supplements to prevent cardiovascular diseases in the future.

Techniques, perspectives, and challenges of bioactive peptide generation: A comprehensive systematic review

Due to the digestible refractory and absorbable structures of bioactive peptides (BPs), they could induce notable biological impacts on the living organism. In this regard, the current study was devoted to providing an overview regarding the available methods for BPs generation by the aid of a systematic review conducted on the published articles up to April 2019. In this context, the PubMed and Scopus databases were screened to retrieve the related publications. According to the results, although the characterization of BPs mainly has been performed using enzymatic and microbial in-vitro methods, they cannot be considered as suitable techniques for further stimulation of digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, new approaches for both in-vivo and in-silico methods for BPs identification should be developed to overcome the obstacles that belonged to the current methods. The purpose of this review was to compile the recent analytical methods applied for studying various aspects of food-derived biopeptides, and emphasizing generation at in vitro, in vivo, and in silico.

Purification and Characterization of Novel Collagen Peptides against Platelet Aggregation and Thrombosis from Salmo salar

Collagen is a rich source of bioactive peptides and is widely distributed in the skin and bone tissue. In this study, collagen from Salmo salar skin was hydrolyzed with Alcalase or Protamex followed by simulated digestion, YMC ODS-A C18 separation, and ESI-MS/MS analysis. A total of 19 peptides were identified and synthesized for investigation of their antiplatelet activities. Hyp-Gly-Glu-Phe-Gly (OGEFG) and Asp-Glu-Gly-Pro (DEGP) exhibited the most potent activity against ADP-induced platelet aggregation among them with IC₅₀ values of 277.17 and 290.00 μM, respectively, and inhibited the release of β-TG and 5-HT in a dose-dependent manner significantly. Single oral administration of OGEFG and DEGP also inhibited thrombus formation in a ferric chloride-induced arterial thrombosis model at a dose of 200 μmol/kg body weight and did not prolong the bleeding time or cause an immune response in mice. Therefore, our findings indicated that collagen peptides had a potential to be developed into an effective specific medical food in the prevention of thrombotic diseases.

The in vitro bioavailability of anti-platelet peptides in collagen hydrolysate from silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) skin

Previous animal experiments indicated collagen hydrolysates (CHs) intake decreased platelet release indicators in plasma and highlight potential applications as healthcare supplements to combat cardiovascular disease. The oligopeptides (GPR, GPRG, and GPRGP) have anti-platelet activities. However, it is still unclear whether they are bioactive compounds in CHs from silver carp skin. We investigated the bioavailability of oligopeptides using simulated gastrointestinal digestion and Caco-2 model. Anti-thrombotic activities, in vitro platelet aggregation and formation of platelet thrombus, were evaluated. They resisted gastrointestinal digestion and could be absorbed by Caco-2. Oligopeptides inhibited platelet aggregation induced by adenosine diphosphate and thrombin with IC₅₀ of 0.160, 0.283, 0.251 mg/ml and 0.714, 1.008, 0.917 mg/ml for GPR, GPRG, and GPRGP, respectively. Oligopeptides prolonged the time of platelet thrombus and inhibited coagulation cascades, but CHs performed no bleeding side effect. These results confirmed that oligopeptides could be used as bioactive compounds of dietary supplements for pre-thrombotic to prevent thrombosis. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Oligopeptides, GPR, GPRG, and GPRGP, derived from silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) skin collagen, performed anti-thrombotic activities from their anti-platelet aggregation and anticoagulation activities. But the collagen hydrolysates containing these peptides had no side effect of bleeding in the mice model. Furthermore, this study investigated the bioavailability of these three bioactive peptides by the Caco-2 cells model. Thus, oligopeptides GPR, GPRG, and GPRGP are a potential index of bioactive compounds in the preparation of anti-thrombotic functional foods or healthcare supplements for people at the pre-thrombotic state.

Effects of Yak skin gelatin on platelet activation

Studies have shown that gelatin is not only a good hemostatic material, but also a food additive with potentially broad use. Yak skin gelatin is a new gelatin resource, but its oral coagulant effects have not been studied. Given the central role of platelets in hemostasis, in this study we examined the pharmacodynamical differences between different molecular Yak skin gelatins on platelet activation. The hemostatic effects of Yak skin gelatins with different molecular weight distributions were evaluated for bleeding time (BT), clotting time (CT), and platelet activity by measuring the contents of P-selectin, platelet membrane glycoprotein Ia/IIa (GP Ia/IIa), platelet membrane glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GP IIb/IIIa), and platelet membrane glycoprotein IV (GP IV). Intragastric administration of Yak skin gelatin resulted in a significant reduction in CT and BT, and an increase in the contents of P-selectin, GP Ia/IIa, GP IIb/IIIa, and GP IV in all groups in comparison with the control group. The strongest activation of platelets by Yak skin gelatin was observed with size between 0.1 μm and 0.22 μm, and activation may have been in response to improving GP IIb/IIIa and GP IV levels. When measuring the levels of an established indicator of platelet activation, platelet activation-dependent granule membrane protein (CD62P), its promotion was observed for all molecular weight ranges of Yak skin gelatins. In brief, Yak skin gelatin has hemostatic effects, and Yak skin gelatin fractions between 0.1 μm and 0.22 μm are the primary effectors of hemostasis via promoting platelet membrane glycoprotein activities and strengthening platelet function.

Identification and Structure-Activity Relationship of Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Function Protective Collagen Peptides from Alaska Pollock Skin

The effect of collagen peptides (CPs) in intestinal mucosal protection has been approved in both cell and animal models. However, its structure–activity relationship and efficient peptide sequences are unclear, which hinders the in-depth study of its action mechanism and relative nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals development. In this work, size exclusion chromatography, cation-exchange chromatography, and RP-HPLC were used to separate Alaska pollock skin-derived collagen hydrolysates based on their molecular weight, charge property, and hydrophobicity. The intestinal epithelial barrier function (IEBF) protective effect of separated peptide fractions were evaluated by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced Caco-2 cell model. Results indicated that lower molecular weight (500–1000 Da) and higher hydrophilicity of CPs were related to better IEBF protective effect. Two high-efficiency IEBF protective peptide sequences, GPSGPQGSR and GPSGLLGPK with the corresponding molecular weights of 841.41 Da and 824.38 Da, were subsequently identified by UPLC-QToF-MS/MS. Their IEBF protective ability are comparable or even better than the currently used intestinal health supplements glutamine and arginine. The present findings suggested that the hydrophilic CPs, with molecular weight between 500 Da to 1000 Da, should be preferred in IEBF protective peptides preparation. GPSGPQGSR and GPSGLLGPK might have the potential of being IEBF protective ingredients used in intestinal health supplements and drugs.

Identification of A Novel Antibacterial Peptide from Atlantic Mackerel belonging to the GAPDH-Related Antimicrobial Family and Its In Vitro Digestibility

The Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus, is one of the most fished species in the world, but it is still largely used for low-value products, such as bait; mainly for crustacean fishery. This resource could be transformed into products of high value and may offer new opportunities for the discovery of bioactive molecules. Mackerel hydrolysate was investigated to discover antibacterial peptides with biotechnological potential. The proteolytic process generated a hydrolysate composed of 96% proteinaceous compounds with molecular weight lower than 7 kDa. From the whole hydrolysate, antibacterial activity was detected against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. After solid phase extraction, purification of the active fraction led to the identification of 4 peptide sequences by mass spectrometry. The peptide sequence N-KVEIVAINDPFIDL-C, called Atlantic Mackerel GAPDH-related peptide (AMGAP), was selected for chemical synthesis to confirm the antibacterial activity and to evaluate its stability through in vitro digestibility. Minimal inhibitory concentrations of AMGAP revealed that Listeria strains were the most sensitive, suggesting potential as food-preservative to prevent bacterial growth. In addition, in vitro digestibility experiments found rapid (after 20 min) and early digestibility (stomach). This study highlights the biotechnological potential of mackerel hydrolysate due to the presence of the antibacterial AMGAP peptide.

Identification and inhibitory activity against α-thrombin of a novel anticoagulant peptide derived from oyster (Crassostrea gigas) protein

A newly discovered anticoagulant peptide was isolated, purified and identified from the pepsin hydrolysate of oyster (Crassostrea gigas) which could potently prolong the activated partial thromboplastin time and the thrombin time. The anticoagulant peptide with a 1264.36 Da molecular mass was similar to the amino acid sequence of the C-terminal segment (DFEEIPEEYLQ) of hirudin (a potent thrombin inhibitor). The peptide specifically inhibited a vital blood coagulation factor: thrombin. The molecular docking energy scores of the anticoagulant peptide with the active site, exosite-I and exosite-II of thrombin were 132.355 kcal mol-1, 151.266 kcal mol-1 and 147.317 kcal mol-1, respectively. The anticoagulant peptide interacted with thrombin by competing with fibrinogen for an anion-binding exosite I. In the anticoagulant peptide-thrombin complex, there are seven hydrogen bonds and reciprocity exists between hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms, and electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions are also involved. Such abundant interactions may be accountable for the high affinity and specificity of the anticoagulant peptide.

Food-derived antithrombotic peptides: Preparation, identification, and interactions with thrombin

Thromboembolism and its sequelae have been the leading causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Food-derived antithrombotic peptides, as potential ingredients in health-promoting functional foods targeting thrombus, have attracted increasing attention because of their high biological activities, low toxicity, and ease of metabolism in the human body. This review presents the conventional workflow of preparation, isolation and identification of antithrombotic peptides from various kinds of food materials. More importantly, to analyze the antithrombotic effects and mechanism of antithrombotic peptides, methods for interaction of anticoagulant peptides and thrombin, the main participant in thrombosis, were analyzed from biochemistry, solution chemistry and crystal chemistry. The present study is intended to highlight the recent advances in research of food-derived antithrombotic peptide as a novel vehicle in the field of food science and nutrition. Future outlooks are highlighted with the aim to suggest a research line to be followed in further studies with the introduced research approach.

In vitro approach for evaluation of carob by-products as source bioactive ingredients with potential to attenuate metabolic syndrome (MetS)

The potential bioactivities for alleviating Metabolic Syndrome associated risk factors were evaluated in carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) fruit by-products, i.e. seed peel, germ and pod. Carob germ and seed peel showed higher phenolic content than pod (99.72, 80.24 and 47.06 μmol GAE g⁻¹, respectively). Pod mostly contained gallic acid and gallotannins; seed peel and germ's showed as most abundant polyphenols quercetin and apigenin derivatives. Carob pod and seed peel revealed stronger antioxidant capacities compared to germ. The strongest antihypertensive activity was found in seed peel, followed by pod and germ. Anti-inflammatory activity showed inhibition of NO production in LPS-induced macrophages, although only pod was able of reducing pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF-α andPGD₂). Finally, fat accumulation on mature adipocytes was reduced by carob seed peel and pod extracts. This work shows the potential use of pod carob by-products as food ingredients with special relevance of carob pod for attenuating metabolic syndrome.

Biological Properties, Current Applications and Potential Therapeautic Applications of Brevinin Peptide Superfamily

The Brevinin peptides are antimicrobial agents obtained from frog skin secretions. Brevinin-2R has attracted many attentions due to its very low hemolytic activity, cationic property, and high affinity to cancer cells. Moreover, it has shown little toxicity against normal mammalian cells, while having killed several tumor cell lines by activation of lysosome-mitochondrial death pathway. In this review, we introduced the Brevinin superfamily with a focus on its therapeutic applications. Next, some unique properties of Brevinins were briefly discussed, including their ability to stimulate insulin secretion, dendritic cell maturation, and wound healing. In this context, we also provide information about the decoration of nanoparticles, such as cerium nano-oxide, by Brevinins. Finally, we addressed their potential for anti-tumor and drug design applications.

Antihypertensive activity of fish protein hydrolysates and its peptides

The rising interest to utilize nutritionally exorbitant fish proteins has instigated research activities in fish waste utilization. The development of newer technologies to utilize fish waste has fostered use of bioactive value-added products for specific health benefits. Enzymatically obtained Fish Protein Hydrolysate (FPH) is a rich source of biologically active peptides possessing anti-oxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial and anti-hypertensive activity. Isolating natural remedies to combat alarming negative consequences of synthetic drugs has been the new trend in current research promoting identification of antihypertensive peptides from FPH. In this review, we aim to culminate data available to produce antihypertensive peptides from FPH, its composition and potential to be used as a therapeutic agent. These purified peptides are known to be rich in arginine, valine and leucine. Reports reveal peptides with low molecular weight (<1 kDa) and shorter chain length (<20 amino acids) exhibited higher antihypertensive activity. As these peptides have proven Angiotensin Converting Enzyme - I inhibitory activity in vitro and in vivo, their potential to be used as antihypertensive drugs is outrageous. However, current focus on research in the field of molecular docking is necessary to have improved understanding of interaction of the peptides with the enzyme.

A Novel Peptide from Soybean Protein Isolate Significantly Enhances Resistance of the Organism under Oxidative Stress

Recent studies have indicated that protein hydrolysates have broad biological effects. In the current study we describe a novel antioxidative peptide, FDPAL, from soybean protein isolate (SPI). The aim of this study was to purify and characterize an antioxidative peptide from SPI and determine its antioxidative mechanism. LC–MS/MS was used to isolate and identify the peptide from SPI. The sequence of the peptide was determined to be Phe-Asp-Pro-Ala-Leu (FDPAL, 561 Da). FDPAL can cause significant enhancement of resistance to oxidative stress both in cells as well as simple organisms. In Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), FDPAL can up-regulate the expression of certain genes associated with resistance. The antioxidant activity of this peptide can be attributed to the presence of a specific amino acid sequence. Results from our work suggest that FDPAL can facilitate potential applications of proteins carrying this sequence in the nutraceutical, bioactive material and clinical medicine areas, as well as in cosmetics and health care products.

The hypolipidemic effect and antithrombotic activity of Mucuna pruriens protein hydrolysates

Hydrolysates and peptide fractions (PF) obtained fromM. pruriensprotein concentrates with commercial and digestive enzymatic systems were studied for their hypolipidemic and antithrombotic activities.

Cardioprotective cryptides derived from fish and other food sources: generation, application, and future markets

The primary function of dietary protein is to provide amino acids for protein synthesis. However, protein is also a source of latent bioactive peptides or cryptides with potential health benefits including the control and regulation of blood pressure. Hypertension or high blood pressure is one of the major, controllable risk factors in the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD), and it is also implicated in the development of myocardial infarction, heart failure, and end-stage diabetes. Cryptides can act on various systems of the body including the circulatory, gastrointestinal (GI), nervous, skeletal, and respiratory systems. A number of studies carried out to date have examined the health benefits of food protein isolates and hydrolysates. This review provides an overview of existing blood pressure regulating peptides and products derived from fish and other protein sources and hydrolysates. It discusses the methods used currently to generate and identify cryptides from these sources and their application in food and pharmaceutical products. It also looks at the current market for protein-derived peptides and peptide-containing products, legislation governing their use, and the future development of research in this area.