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Chiș IA, Andrei V, Muntean A, Moldovan M, Mesaroș AȘ, Dudescu MC, Ilea A. Salivary Biomarkers of Anti-Epileptic Drugs: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics (Basel) 2023; 13:diagnostics13111962. [PMID: 37296814 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13111962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Saliva is a biofluid that reflects general health and that can be collected in order to evaluate and determine various pathologies and treatments. Biomarker analysis through saliva sampling is an emerging method of accurately screening and diagnosing diseases. Anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) are prescribed generally in seizure treatment. The dose-response relationship of AEDs is influenced by numerous factors and varies from patient to patient, hence the need for the careful supervision of drug intake. The therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of AEDs was traditionally performed through repeated blood withdrawals. Saliva sampling in order to determine and monitor AEDs is a novel, fast, low-cost and non-invasive approach. This narrative review focuses on the characteristics of various AEDs and the possibility of determining active plasma concentrations from saliva samples. Additionally, this study aims to highlight the significant correlations between AED blood, urine and oral fluid levels and the applicability of saliva TDM for AEDs. The study also focuses on emphasizing the applicability of saliva sampling for epileptic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioana-Andreea Chiș
- Department of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hațieganu", 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Vlad Andrei
- Department of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hațieganu", 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Alexandrina Muntean
- Department of Paediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hațieganu", 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Marioara Moldovan
- Department of Polymer Composites, Institute of Chemistry "Raluca Ripan", University Babes-Bolyai, 400294 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Anca Ștefania Mesaroș
- Department of Dental Propaedeutics and Aesthetics, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hațieganu", 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Mircea Cristian Dudescu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Automotive, Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Aranka Ilea
- Department of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Iuliu Hațieganu", 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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A Comparative Study between Screen-Printed and Solid-Contact Electrodes for the Stability-Indicating Determination of Bromazepam. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27217616. [DOI: 10.3390/molecules27217616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Stability-indicating methods are awesome tools to ensure the safety and efficacy of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). An accurate comparative study involving the use of potentiometric sensors for the determination of bromazepam (BRZ) in the presence of its main product of degradation and impurity was performed by the fabrication of two membrane electrodes. A screen-printed electrode (SPE) and a solid-contact glassy carbon electrode (SCE) were fabricated and their performance optimized. The fabricated sensors showed a linear electrochemical response in the concentration range 1.0 × 10−6 M to 1.0 × 10−2 M. The electrodes exhibited Nernstian slopes of 59.70 mV/decade and 58.10 mV/decade for the BRZ-SPE and BRZ-SCE membrane electrodes, respectively. The electrochemical performance was greatly affected by the medium pH. They showed an almost ideal electrochemical performance between pH 3.0 and pH 6.0. The fabricated membranes were applied successfully for the quantification of BRZ in the presence of up to 90% of its degradation product. Moreover, a successful application of the fabricated electrodes was performed for the sensitive and selective quantification of BRZ in its tablet form without any pretreatment procedure.
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Heidari H, Sadi S. Hydrophobic deep eutectic solvent‐based microextraction method for the simultaneous extraction of two benzodiazepines from saliva samples before determination by 96‐well microplates‐based spectrophotometer with the aid of chemometrics. SEPARATION SCIENCE PLUS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/sscp.202200060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Heidari
- Department of Chemistry Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University Tabriz Iran
| | - Sevda Sadi
- Department of Chemistry Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University Tabriz Iran
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Albishri HM, Aldawsari NA, Abd El-Hady D. A Simple and Reliable Liquid Chromatographic Method for Simultaneous Determination of Five Benzodiazepine Drugs in Human Plasma. ANALYTICA 2022; 3:251-265. [DOI: 10.3390/analytica3020018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are one of the most important drugs that have been used in the treatment of neuropsychological disorders. Indeed, BZDs are abused by drug addicts regardless of their therapeutic uses. Therefore, it was important in forensic and clinical toxicology to reach an easy and reliable method for the screening and quantification of BZDs in the human plasma matrix. In the current work, five BZDs, namely bromazepam, clonazepam, lorazepam, nordiazepam and diazepam were simultaneously separated and detected by a simple and reliable RPLC method in a human plasma matrix. Isocratic mobile elution consisting of 20 mmol L−1 phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) and methanol (50:50, v/v) on a Symmetry C18 column was employed. The flow rate, wavelength and column temperature were fixed at 1.0 mL min−1, 214 nm and 40 °C, respectively. The proposed method was validated, giving a linearity within the concentration ranges 5–500 ng mL−1 for bromazepam and diazepam, 3–500 ng mL−1 for clonazepam and lorazepam and 1–500 ng mL−1 for nordiazepam with a determination coefficient (R2) more than 0.9992. The LOD values for the selected BZDs ranged from 0.54 to 2.32 and from 1.78 to 7.65 ng mL−1 for standard methanolic and plasma matrices, respectively. Precision, accuracy, selectivity, stability, and robustness were some of the terms considered in validating the current RPLC method. Based on these results, a simple and reliable RPLC method was successfully applied to quantify BZDs in human plasma matrix appearing with recoveries ranging from 96.5 to 107.5% and interday RSD less than 4%. The current developed method was useful for rapidly screening the most commonly used BZDs in the market within their therapeutic concentration ranges.
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Manousi N, Deliyanni EA, Rosenberg E, Zachariadis GA. Ultrasound-assisted magnetic solid-phase extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from water samples with a magnetic polyaniline modified graphene oxide nanocomposite. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1645:462104. [PMID: 33857676 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A novel magnetic graphene oxide nanocomposite modified with polyaniline (Fe3O4@GO-PANI) was synthesized and applied for the magnetic solid-phase extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (i.e. fluorene, phenanthrene and pyrene) and nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (N-PAHs) (i.e. 2-nitrofluorene, 9-nitroanthracene, 1-nitropyrene and 3-nitrofluoranthene) prior to their determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The prepared nanomaterial was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy. The main experimental parameters affecting the extraction and desorption steps of the MSPE procedure were investigated and optimized. Under optimum conditions, coefficients of determination (r2) ranged between 0.9970 and 0.9995, limits of detection (LODs, S/N = 3) ranged between 0.04-0.05 ng mL-1 for PAHs and 0.01-0.11 ng mL-1 for N-PAHs, while the relative standard deviation for intra-day and inter-day repeatability were lower than 10.0% for PAHs and N-PAHs. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of tap, mineral and river water samples. Relative recoveries in spiked water samples ranged between from 91.6 to 114% and from 92.3 to 110% for PAHs and N-PAHs, respectively. The proposed method is simple, rapid, sensitive and the Fe3O4@GO-PANI sorbent can be reused for at least 15 times without significant decrease in extraction recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Manousi
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece.
| | - E A Deliyanni
- Laboratory of Chemical and Environmental Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
| | - E Rosenberg
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Vienna University of Technology, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - G A Zachariadis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
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Manousi N, Deliyanni EA, Rosenberg E, Zachariadis GA. Magnetic solid-phase extraction of caffeine from surface water samples with a micro–meso porous activated carbon/Fe 3O 4 nanocomposite prior to its determination by GC-MS. RSC Adv 2021; 11:19492-19499. [PMID: 35479258 PMCID: PMC9033622 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra01564h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel micro–meso porous activated carbon/Fe3O4 (Bm) composite was synthesized from the active charcoal precursor BAX-1500 and used in the magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) of caffeine prior to its determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The main factors affecting the extraction and desorption steps of the MSPE procedure were investigated and optimized. These factors include extraction time, sorbent mass and salt addition for the adsorption step and type of eluent, desorption time and volume of desorption solution for the desorption step. Under optimum conditions, the absolute extraction recovery was found to be 91.1% and good linearity was observed in the investigated concentration range of 0.6–12.5 ng mL−1 (R2 = 0.9997). The limit of detection was 0.18 ng mL−1 and the limit of quantification was 0.60 ng mL−1. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of surface water samples. The proposed MSPE method is simple, rapid, sensitive and environmentally friendly. A novel magnetic solid phase material based on a micro–meso porous activated carbon/Fe3O4 nanocomposite was used to extract caffeine from surface water samples. The method is efficient and rapid, and has minimum solvent consumption.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Manousi
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry
- Department of Chemistry
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
- Thessaloniki 54124
- Greece
| | - Eleni A. Deliyanni
- Laboratory of Chemical and Environmental Technology
- Department of Chemistry
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
- Thessaloniki 54124
- Greece
| | - Erwin Rosenberg
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics
- Vienna University of Technology
- Austria
| | - George A. Zachariadis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry
- Department of Chemistry
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
- Thessaloniki 54124
- Greece
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Darwish HW, A Ali N, Naguib IA, El Ghobashy MR, Al-Hossaini AM, Abdelrahman MM. Stability indicating spectrophotometric methods for quantitative determination of bromazepam and its degradation product. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 238:118433. [PMID: 32403074 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2020.118433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Four simple, sensitive and selective stability indicating spectrophotometric methods are presented for quantitative determination of the benzodiazepine drug; bromazepam (BMZ) and one of its reported potential impurities and degradation product; 2-(2-amino-5-bromobenzoyl) pyridine (ABP) in methanol. Method A, is isoabsorptive point coupled with D0 method, where good linearity was obtained by measuring the absorbance of BMZ at 264 nm (Aiso) in the concentration range of 2-25 μg mL-1, and the absorbance of ABP at its λmax 396 nm in concentration range of 0.5-24 μg mL-1. Method B, is ratio subtraction; the absorbance was measured at 233 nm for BMZ using 20 μg mL-1 of ABP, while ABP was determined directly at its λmax 396 nm using methanol as a solvent. Method C, was based on measuring the total peak amplitude of the first derivative of the ratio spectra (DD1) of BMZ from 301 to 326 nm using 10 μg mL-1 of ABP as a divisor and determination of ABP at peak amplitude of 293 nm using 5 μg mL-1 of BMZ as a divisor. In method D, ratio difference method, good linearity was achieved for determination of BMZ and ABP by measuring the differences between the amplitudes of ratio spectra at 312 nm and 274 nm and differences between the amplitudes of ratio spectra at 274 nm and 312 nm, respectively. The stability of BMZ was investigated under different ICH recommended forced degradation conditions. The suggested methods were then successfully applied for determination of BMZ in its pharmaceutical formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany W Darwish
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini St., Cairo 11562, Egypt
| | - Nesma A Ali
- Toxicology Laboratory, Forensic Medicine Authority, Justice Ministry,114 Bairam El Tounsy St., El Sayeda Zeinab, 11647 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim A Naguib
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Alshaheed Shehata Ahmad Hegazy St., 62514 Beni-Suef, Egypt; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Al-Hawiah 21974, Taif, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohamed R El Ghobashy
- Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini St., Cairo 11562, Egypt; Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, October 6 City, Giza, Egypt
| | - Abdullah M Al-Hossaini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2457, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Maha M Abdelrahman
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Alshaheed Shehata Ahmad Hegazy St., 62514 Beni-Suef, Egypt
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8
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Sun T, Ali MM, Wang D, Du Z. On-site rapid screening of benzodiazepines in dietary supplements using pipette-tip micro-solid phase extraction coupled to ion mobility spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1610:460547. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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9
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Belal F, Ibrahim F, Sheribah Z, Alaa H. Novel univariate and multivariate regression methods for the simultaneous analysis of ternary mixture of 1, 4-benzodiazepines in dosage forms and human urine. Clin Chim Acta 2018; 482:108-119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2018.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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Samiec P, Navrátilová Z. Electrochemical behaviour of bromazepam and alprazolam and their determination in the pharmaceutical tablets Lexaurin and Xanax on carbon paste electrode. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-016-1859-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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11
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Jiang F, Rao Y, Wang R, Johansen SS, Ni C, Liang C, Zheng S, Ye H, Zhang Y. Sensitive, automatic method for the determination of diazepam and its five metabolites in human oral fluid by online solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2016; 39:1873-83. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201600107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fengli Jiang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Fudan University; Shanghai P. R. China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Yulan Rao
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Fudan University; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Rong Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Sys Stybe Johansen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Chunfang Ni
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Chen Liang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Shuiqing Zheng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Haiying Ye
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
| | - Yurong Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence; Shanghai Institute of Forensic Science; Shanghai P. R. China
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Matrix-free analysis of selected benzodiazepines in human serum samples using alternating trilinear decomposition modeling of fast liquid chromatography diode array detection data. Talanta 2016; 148:454-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2015.10.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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13
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Samanidou V, Kaltzi I, Kabir A, Furton KG. Simplifying sample preparation using fabric phase sorptive extraction technique for the determination of benzodiazepines in blood serum by high-performance liquid chromatography. Biomed Chromatogr 2015; 30:829-36. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Revised: 08/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Samanidou
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry; Aristotle University of Thessaloniki; Greece
| | - Ioanna Kaltzi
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry; Aristotle University of Thessaloniki; Greece
| | - Abuzar Kabir
- International Forensic Research Institute, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Florida International University; Miami FL USA
| | - Kenneth G. Furton
- International Forensic Research Institute, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Florida International University; Miami FL USA
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Persona K, Madej K, Knihnicki P, Piekoszewski W. Analytical methodologies for the determination of benzodiazepines in biological samples. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 113:239-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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15
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Ghobadi M, Yamini Y, Ebrahimpour B. SPE coupled with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by GC with flame ionization detection for the determination of ultra-trace amounts of benzodiazepines. J Sep Sci 2013; 37:287-94. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201300893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Revised: 10/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Masoomeh Ghobadi
- Department of Chemistry; Tarbiat Modares University; Tehran Iran
| | - Yadollah Yamini
- Department of Chemistry; Tarbiat Modares University; Tehran Iran
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Direct quantitative analysis of benzodiazepines, metabolites, and analogs in diluted human urine by rapid resolution liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Food Drug Anal 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfda.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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17
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Moreno AMJ, Navas MJ, Asuero AG. HPLC-DAD Determination of CNS-Acting Drugs in Human Blood, Plasma, and Serum. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2013; 44:68-106. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2013.828570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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18
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Westland JL, Dorman FL. QuEChERS extraction of benzodiazepines in biological matrices. J Pharm Anal 2013; 3:509-517. [PMID: 29403862 PMCID: PMC5761015 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Two common analytical chemical problems often encountered when using chromatographic techniques in drug analysis are matrix interferences and ion suppression. Common sample preparation often involves the dilution of the sample prior to injection onto an instrument, especially for liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) analyses. This practice frequently does not minimize or eliminate conditions that may cause ion-suppression and therefore, suffer more from reduced method robustness. In order to achieve higher quality results and minimize possible interferences, various sample preparation techniques may be considered. Through the use of QuEChERS (“catchers”), a novel sample preparation technique used for high aqueous content samples, benzodiazepines can be extracted from biological fluids, such as blood and urine. This approach has shown increased recoveries of target compounds when using quantification by both external and internal standard. This increase in the recoveries has been attributed to a matrix enhancement and was determined through the use of the method of standard addition. While improving the overall analytical method for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis, it is not clear if this approach represents an overall benefit for laboratories that have both GC–MS and high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS) capability. Demonstrating evidence of variable ionization (enhancement, ion source inertness, etc.), the method of quantification should be focused on in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Westland
- The Pennsylvania State University, 107 Whitmore Laboratories, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Frank L Dorman
- The Pennsylvania State University, 107 Whitmore Laboratories, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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Karlonas N, Padarauskas A, Ramanavicius A, Ramanaviciene A. Mixed-mode SPE for a multi-residue analysis of benzodiazepines in whole blood using rapid GC with negative-ion chemical ionization MS. J Sep Sci 2013; 36:1437-45. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201201069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Revised: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Audrius Padarauskas
- Center of Nanotechnology and Material Science; Department of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; Vilnius University; Vilnius; Lithuania
| | - Arunas Ramanavicius
- Department of Physical Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; Vilnius University; Vilnius; Lithuania
| | - Almira Ramanaviciene
- Center of Nanotechnology and Material Science; Department of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; Vilnius University; Vilnius; Lithuania
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Fernández P, González C, Pena MT, Carro AM, Lorenzo RA. A rapid ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction followed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography for the simultaneous determination of seven benzodiazepines in human plasma samples. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 767:88-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Uddin MN, Samanidou VF, Papadoyannis IN. Bio-Sample Preparation and Gas Chromatographic Determination of Benzodiazepines--A Review. J Chromatogr Sci 2013; 51:587-98. [DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bms263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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22
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Benzodiazepines: sample preparation and HPLC methods for their determination in biological samples. Bioanalysis 2011; 1:755-84. [PMID: 21083137 DOI: 10.4155/bio.09.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines (BDZs) belong to a group of substances known for their sedative, antidepressive, muscle relaxant, tranquilizer, hypnotic and anticonvulsant properties. Their determination in biological fluids is essential in clinical assays as well as in forensics and toxicological studies. Researchers focus on the development of rapid, accurate, precise and sensitive methods for the determination of BDZs and their metabolites. A large number of analytical methods using different techniques have been reported, but none can be considered as the method of choice. BDZs are usually present at trace levels (microgram or nanogram per milliliter) in a complex biological matrix and the potentially interfering compounds must be isolated by various extraction techniques before analysis. An extended and comprehensive review is presented herein, focusing on sample preparation (pretreatment and extraction) and HPLC conditions applied by different authors. These methods enable bioanalysts to achieve detection limits down to 1-2 ng/ml using UV/diode array detection, readily available in most laboratories, and better than 1 ng/ml using electron capture detection, which is lower than that obtained using a nitrogen phosphorus detector. MS interfaced with electrospray ionization offered a similar sensitivity, while negative chemical ionization MS or sonic spray ionization MS provided sensitivity down to 0.1 ng/ml.
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Brown SD, Melton TC. Trends in bioanalytical methods for the determination and quantification of club drugs: 2000-2010. Biomed Chromatogr 2010; 25:300-21. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.1549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Revised: 09/09/2010] [Accepted: 09/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Debruyne D, Pailliet-Loilier M, Lelong-Boulouard V, Coquerel A, Bentué-Ferrer D. [Therapeutic drug monitoring of clonazepam]. Therapie 2010; 65:219-24. [PMID: 20699074 DOI: 10.2515/therapie/2010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2009] [Accepted: 03/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Clonazepam is a 1-4 benzodiazepine mainly used to treat epilepsy and epileptiform convulsion state. Rapidly absorbed after oral administration, it is widely distributed in the organism and is extensively converted in metabolites, poorly or not active, eliminated mainly in urine (70%) and feces. Elimination half-life is long, around 40 h. In adult and child, several studies showed a concentration-effect relation. Meanwhile, a large inter-individual variability in the dose-concentration relation was observed. A 15-50 microg/L range of clonazepam blood concentrations appears to be retained as an acceptable target to control a majority of epileptic seizures. The Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) of clonazepam can be considered as possibly useful in case of association with CYP450 inducers or inhibitors, suspicion of poor observance, or toxicity signs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danièle Debruyne
- Service de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, CHU Côte de Nacre, Caen, France.
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Fernández P, Vázquez C, Lorenzo RA, Carro AM, Bermejo AM. Development of a Liquid Chromatographic Method for the Simultaneous Determination of Six Benzodiazepines in Human Plasma After Solid-Phase Extraction. ANAL LETT 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/00032710903492490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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26
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Fernández P, Vázquez C, Lorenzo RA, Carro AM, Álvarez I, Cabarcos P. Experimental design for optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of benzodiazepines in human plasma. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:677-85. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3572-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2009] [Revised: 12/22/2009] [Accepted: 02/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Trace analysis of antidepressants in environmental waters by molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction followed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 396:825-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3270-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 10/23/2009] [Accepted: 10/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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28
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral fluid (OF) is an exciting alternative matrix for monitoring drugs of abuse in workplace, clinical toxicology, criminal justice, and driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) programs. During the last 5 years, scientific and technological advances in OF collection, point-of-collection testing devices, and screening and confirmation methods were achieved. Guidelines were proposed for workplace OF testing by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, DUID testing by the European Union's Driving under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines (DRUID) program, and standardization of DUID research. Although OF testing is now commonplace in many monitoring programs, the greatest current limitation is the scarcity of controlled drug administration studies available to guide interpretation. CONTENT This review outlines OF testing advantages and limitations, and the progress in OF that has occurred during the last 5 years in collection, screening, confirmation, and interpretation of cannabinoids, opioids, amphetamines, cocaine, and benzodiazepines. We examine controlled drug administration studies, immunoassay and chromatographic methods, collection devices, point-of-collection testing device performance, and recent applications of OF testing. SUMMARY Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration approval of OF testing was delayed because questions about drug OF disposition were not yet resolved, and collection device performance and testing assays required improvement. Here, we document the many advances achieved in the use of OF. Additional research is needed to identify new biomarkers, determine drug detection windows, characterize OF adulteration techniques, and evaluate analyte stability. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that OF offers multiple advantages as an alternative matrix for drug monitoring and has an important role in DUID, treatment, workplace, and criminal justice programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M. Bosker
- Maastricht University, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Experimental Psychopharmacology Unit, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
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Current Awareness in Drug Testing and Analysis. Drug Test Anal 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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