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Wei X, Yang X, Hu C, Li Q, Liu Q, Wu Y, Xie L, Ning X, Li F, Cai T, Zhu Z, Zhang YHPJ, Zhang Y, Chen X, You C. ATP-free in vitro biotransformation of starch-derived maltodextrin into poly-3-hydroxybutyrate via acetyl-CoA. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3267. [PMID: 38627361 PMCID: PMC11021460 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46871-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In vitro biotransformation (ivBT) facilitated by in vitro synthetic enzymatic biosystems (ivSEBs) has emerged as a highly promising biosynthetic platform. Several ivSEBs have been constructed to produce poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) via acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). However, some systems are hindered by their reliance on costly ATP, limiting their practicality. This study presents the design of an ATP-free ivSEB for one-pot PHB biosynthesis via acetyl-CoA utilizing starch-derived maltodextrin as the sole substrate. Stoichiometric analysis indicates this ivSEB can self-maintain NADP+/NADPH balance and achieve a theoretical molar yield of 133.3%. Leveraging simple one-pot reactions, our ivSEBs achieved a near-theoretical molar yield of 125.5%, the highest PHB titer (208.3 mM, approximately 17.9 g/L) and the fastest PHB production rate (9.4 mM/h, approximately 0.8 g/L/h) among all the reported ivSEBs to date, and demonstrated easy scalability. This study unveils the promising potential of ivBT for the industrial-scale production of PHB and other acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals from starch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlei Wei
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Yang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Congcong Hu
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Industrial Microbiology Key Laboratory, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiangzi Li
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Qianqian Liu
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Wu
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Leipeng Xie
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Ning
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Li
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Cai
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiguang Zhu
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Heng P Job Zhang
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanfei Zhang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuejun Chen
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Chun You
- In vitro Synthetic Biology Center, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China.
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.
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Recent advances in development of poly (dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) antimicrobial polymers. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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3
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Chee PL, Owh C, Venkatesh M, Periayah MH, Zhang Z, Michelle Yew PY, Ruan H, Lakshminarayanan R, Kai D, Loh XJ. Cationic Lignin-Based Hyperbranched Polymers to Circumvent Drug Resistance in Pseudomonas Keratitis. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 7:4659-4668. [PMID: 34414768 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The rise of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria strains has been a global public health concern due to their ability to cause increased patient morbidity and a greater burden on the healthcare system. As one of the potential solutions to overcome such bacterial infections, hyperbranched copolymers with cationic charges were developed. These copolymers were assessed for their antimicrobial efficacy and their bactericidal mechanisms. They were found to be potent against mobile colistin-resistant 1 strains, which was significant as colistin is known to be the last-resort antibiotic against Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, there was no sign of mutational resistance developed by E. Coli ATCC 25922 and MCR 1+ E. Coli against the copolymer even up to 20 passages. The ability to evade inducing resistance would provide invaluable insights for future antibiotic development. Our studies suggest that the bactericidal efficacy comes from the ability to target the outer membrane efficaciously. In vivo study using a Pseudomonas keratitis model showed that the copolymer was compatible with the eye and further supported that the copolymer treatment was effective for complete bacteria elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Lin Chee
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Cally Owh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Mayandi Venkatesh
- Ocular Infections & Anti-Microbials Research Group, Singapore Eye Research Institute, The Academia, 20 College Road, Discovery Tower, Singapore 169856, Singapore
| | - Mercy Halleluyah Periayah
- Ocular Infections & Anti-Microbials Research Group, Singapore Eye Research Institute, The Academia, 20 College Road, Discovery Tower, Singapore 169856, Singapore
| | - Zheng Zhang
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Pek Yin Michelle Yew
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Huajun Ruan
- Zhejiang Fenix Health Science and Technology Co., Ltd, Zhejiang 176849, China
| | - Rajamani Lakshminarayanan
- Ocular Infections & Anti-Microbials Research Group, Singapore Eye Research Institute, The Academia, 20 College Road, Discovery Tower, Singapore 169856, Singapore.,Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive, Singapore 117543, Singapore.,Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences Academic Clinical Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Dan Kai
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Xian Jun Loh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03 Innovis, Singapore 138634, Singapore
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Jiang X, Li Z, Young DJ, Liu M, Wu C, Wu YL, Loh XJ. Toward the prevention of coronavirus infection: what role can polymers play? MATERIALS TODAY. ADVANCES 2021; 10:100140. [PMID: 33778467 PMCID: PMC7980145 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtadv.2021.100140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus 2 has caused a global public health crisis with high rates of infection and mortality. Treatment and prevention approaches include vaccine development, the design of small-molecule antiviral drugs, and macromolecular neutralizing antibodies. Polymers have been designed for effective virus inhibition and as antiviral drug delivery carriers. This review summarizes recent progress and provides a perspective on polymer-based approaches for the treatment and prevention of coronavirus infection. These polymer-based partners include polyanion/polycations, dendritic polymers, macromolecular prodrugs, and polymeric drug delivery systems that have the potential to significantly improve the efficacy of antiviral therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Jiang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Z Li
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A∗STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - D J Young
- College of Engineering, Information Technology and Environment, Charles Darwin University, Northern Territory 0909, Australia
| | - M Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - C Wu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Y-L Wu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - X J Loh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A∗STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore 138634, Singapore
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5
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Jiang L, Chee PL, Gao J, Gan CRR, Owh C, Lakshminarayanan R, Jiang S, Hor TSA, Loh XJ. A New Potent Antimicrobial Metalloporphyrin. Chem Asian J 2021; 16:1007-1015. [PMID: 33617127 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202100053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A series of bis-acryl functionalized porphyrins and their corresponding metalloporphyrins (M=Co, Mn) were synthesized and investigated for their antimicrobial properties through MIC screening and bacteria time-kill kinetic studies. The Mn(III) 4-(bis)methylphenyl-substituted-porphyrins showed superior batericidal activities even in the dark with low hemotoxicity and good cytotoxicity profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Jiang
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03, Innovis, Singapore, 138634, Singapore
| | - Pei Lin Chee
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03, Innovis, Singapore, 138634, Singapore
| | - Jian Gao
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Ching Ruey Raymond Gan
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Cally Owh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03, Innovis, Singapore, 138634, Singapore
| | - Rajamani Lakshminarayanan
- Anti-Infectives Research Group, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore, 169856, Singapore.,Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences Academic Clinical Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, 169857, Singapore.,Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shan Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
| | - T S Andy Hor
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore, 117543, Singapore.,Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 1, #20-10 Fusionopolis Way, Connexis, North Tower, Singapore, 138632, Singapore
| | - Xian Jun Loh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way, #08-03, Innovis, Singapore, 138634, Singapore.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
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Mushtaq S, Ahmad NM, Mahmood A, Iqbal M. Antibacterial Amphiphilic Copolymers of Dimethylamino Ethyl Methacrylate and Methyl Methacrylate to Control Biofilm Adhesion for Antifouling Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13020216. [PMID: 33435345 PMCID: PMC7826986 DOI: 10.3390/polym13020216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Amphiphilic copolymers are recognized as important biomaterials and used as antibacterial agents due to their effective inhibition of bacterial growth. In current study, the amphiphilic copolymers of P(DMAEMA-co-MMA) were synthesized using free radical polymerization by varying the concentrations of hydrophilic monomer 2-dimethylamino ethylmethacrylate (DMAEMA) and hydrophobic monomer methyl methacrylate (MMA) having PDI value of 1.65-1.93. The DMAEMA monomer, through ternary amine with antibacterial property optimized copolymers, P(DMAEMA-co-MMA), compositions to control biofilm adhesion. Antibacterial activity of synthesized copolymers was elucidated against Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) and Gram-negative Escherchia coli (ATCC 8739) by disk diffusion method, and zones of inhibition were measured. The desired composition that was PDM1 copolymer had shown good zones of inhibition i.e., 19 ± 0.33 mm and 20 ± 0.33 mm for E. coli and S. aureus respectively. The PDM1 and PDM2 have exhibited significant control over bacterial biofilm adhesion as tested by six well plate method. SEM study of bacterial biofilm formation has illustrated that these copolymers act in a similar fashion like cationic biocide. These compositions viz. PDM1 and PDM2, may be useful in development of bioreactors, sensors, surgical equipment and drug delivery devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shehla Mushtaq
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; (S.M.); (A.M.); (M.I.)
| | - Nasir M. Ahmad
- Polymer Research Lab, School of Chemical and Material Engineering (SCME), National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +92-51-9085-5213
| | - Azhar Mahmood
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; (S.M.); (A.M.); (M.I.)
| | - Mudassir Iqbal
- Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; (S.M.); (A.M.); (M.I.)
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Tan J, Tay J, Hedrick J, Yang YY. Synthetic macromolecules as therapeutics that overcome resistance in cancer and microbial infection. Biomaterials 2020; 252:120078. [PMID: 32417653 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic macromolecular antimicrobials have shown efficacy in the treatment of multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens. These synthetic macromolecules, inspired by Nature's antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), mitigate resistance by disrupting microbial cell membrane or targeting multiple intracellular proteins or genes. Unlike AMPs, these polymers are less prone to degradation by proteases and are easier to synthesize on a large scale. Recently, various studies have revealed that cancer cell membrane, like that of microbes, is negatively charged, and AMPs can be used as anticancer agents. Nevertheless, efforts in developing polymers as anticancer agents has remained limited. This review highlights the recent advancement in the development of synthetic biodegradable antimicrobial polymers (e.g. polycarbonates, polyesters and polypeptides) and anticancer macromolecules including peptides and polymers. Additionally, strategies to improve their in vivo bioavailability and selectivity towards bacteria and cancer cells are examined. Lastly, future perspectives, including use of artificial intelligence or machine learning, in the development of antimicrobial and anticancer macromolecules are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Tan
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, Singapore, 138669, Singapore; Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Joyce Tay
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, Singapore, 138669, Singapore; Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - James Hedrick
- IBM Almaden Research Center, 650 Harry Road, San Jose, CA, 95120, United States
| | - Yi Yan Yang
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, Singapore, 138669, Singapore.
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Xu J, Pu L, Ma J, Kumar SK, Duan H. Antibacterial properties of synthesized cyclic and linear cationic copolymers. Polym Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0py00755b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Antibacterial activities of cationic cyclic copolymers compared to those of their linear counterparts were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinbao Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Soft Condensed Matter
- School of Materials and Energy
- Guangdong University of Technology
- Guangzhou 510006
- P. R. China
| | - Lu Pu
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 637457
| | - Jielin Ma
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 637457
| | - Sagar Kundan Kumar
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 637457
| | - Hongwei Duan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore 637457
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