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Ruiz-Mateos Serrano R, Aguzin A, Mitoudi-Vagourdi E, Tao X, Naegele TE, Jin AT, Lopez-Larrea N, Picchio ML, Vinicio Alban-Paccha M, Minari RJ, Mecerreyes D, Dominguez-Alfaro A, Malliaras GG. 3D printed PEDOT:PSS-based conducting and patternable eutectogel electrodes for machine learning on textiles. Biomaterials 2024; 310:122624. [PMID: 38805956 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
The proliferation of medical wearables necessitates the development of novel electrodes for cutaneous electrophysiology. In this work, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) is combined with a deep eutectic solvent (DES) and polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) to develop printable and biocompatible electrodes for long-term cutaneous electrophysiology recordings. The impact of printing parameters on the conducting properties, morphological characteristics, mechanical stability and biocompatibility of the material were investigated. The optimised eutectogel formulations were fabricated in four different patterns -flat, pyramidal, striped and wavy- to explore the influence of electrode geometry on skin conformability and mechanical contact. These electrodes were employed for impedance and forearm EMG measurements. Furthermore, arrays of twenty electrodes were embedded into a textile and used to generate body surface potential maps (BSPMs) of the forearm, where different finger movements were recorded and analysed. Finally, BSPMs for three different letters (B, I, O) in sign-language were recorded and used to train a logistic regressor classifier able to reliably identify each letter. This novel cutaneous electrode fabrication approach offers new opportunities for long-term electrophysiological recordings, online sign-language translation and brain-machine interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Ruiz-Mateos Serrano
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK
| | - Ana Aguzin
- Group of Polymers and Polymerization Reactors, INTEC, National University of the Litoral - CONICET, Güemes 3450, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina
| | - Eleni Mitoudi-Vagourdi
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK
| | - Xudong Tao
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK
| | - Tobias E Naegele
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK
| | - Amy T Jin
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK
| | - Naroa Lopez-Larrea
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastián, Gipuzkoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Matías L Picchio
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastián, Gipuzkoa, 20018, Spain; Group of Polymers and Polymerization Reactors, INTEC, National University of the Litoral - CONICET, Güemes 3450, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina
| | - Marco Vinicio Alban-Paccha
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK; Division of Anaesthesia, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge, UK
| | - Roque J Minari
- Group of Polymers and Polymerization Reactors, INTEC, National University of the Litoral - CONICET, Güemes 3450, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina
| | - David Mecerreyes
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastián, Gipuzkoa, 20018, Spain; IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Antonio Dominguez-Alfaro
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK.
| | - George G Malliaras
- Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 9 JJ Thomson Ave, Cambridge, CB3 0FA, UK.
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Keate RL, Tropp J, Wu R, Petty AJ, Ameer GA, Rivnay J. Decoupling the Influence of Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene)-Collagen Composite Characteristics on Cell Stemness. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2305562. [PMID: 38350724 PMCID: PMC11251566 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202305562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Conductive polymers (CPs) are widely studied for their ability to influence a myriad of tissue systems. While their mixed ionic/electronic conductivity is commonly considered the primary driver of these benefits, the mechanisms by which CPs influence cell fate remain unclear. In this study, CP-biomaterial interactions are investigated using collagen, due to its widespread prevalence throughout the body and in tissue engineering constructs. Collagen is functionalized with both electrostatically and covalently bound derivatives of the CP poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) doped via backbone-tethered sulfonate groups, which enable high solubility and loading to the collagen biomatrix. Intrinsically doped scaffolds are compared to those incorporated with a commercially available PEDOT formulation, which is complexed with polyanionic polystyrene sulfonate (PSS). Low loadings of intrinsically doped PEDOT do not increase substrate conductivity compared to collagen alone, enabling separate investigation into CP loading and conductivity. Interestingly, higher PEDOT loading bolsters human mesenchymal stromal (hMSC) cell gene expression of Oct-4 and NANOG, which are key transcription factors regulating cell stemness. Conductive collagen composites with commercial PEDOT:PSS do not significantly affect the expression of these transcription factors in hMSCs. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that PEDOT regulates cellular fate independently from physical changes to the material but directly to the loading of the polymer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Keate
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Center for Advanced Regenerative EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Simpson Querrey InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
| | - Joshua Tropp
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Center for Advanced Regenerative EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Simpson Querrey InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
| | - Ruiheng Wu
- Simpson Querrey InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
| | - Anthony J. Petty
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Center for Advanced Regenerative EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Simpson Querrey InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
| | - Guillermo A. Ameer
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Center for Advanced Regenerative EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Simpson Querrey InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
- Department of SurgeryFeinberg School of MedicineNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
- Chemistry of Life Processes InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60208USA
- International Institute for NanotechnologyNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60208USA
| | - Jonathan Rivnay
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Center for Advanced Regenerative EngineeringNorthwestern UniversityEvanstonIL60208USA
- Simpson Querrey InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60611USA
- Chemistry of Life Processes InstituteNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60208USA
- International Institute for NanotechnologyNorthwestern UniversityChicagoIL60208USA
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Ma H, Liu S, Zhong H, Zhou M, Xing C, Li Y, Zhang Q, Guo J, Ning G. Exploring the Landscape of Hydrogel Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury: A Bibliometric and Visual Analysis (1991-2023). World Neurosurg 2024; 186:e95-e105. [PMID: 38508381 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2024.03.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the literature on hydrogel therapy for spinal cord injury to visualize the research status, identify hotspots, and explore the development trends in this field. METHODS Web of science Core Collection database was searched for relevant studies published between January 1991 and December 2023. Data such as journal title, author information, institutional affiliation, country, citation, and keywords were extracted. Bibliometrix, CiteSpace, and VOSviewer were used to perform bibliometric analysis of the retrieved data. RESULTS A total of 1099 articles pertaining to hydrogel therapy for spinal cord injury were retrieved, revealing an upward trajectory in both annual publication volume and cumulative publication volume. Biomaterials emerged as the journal with the highest number of publications and the most rapid cumulative publication growth, contributing 84 articles. Among authors, Shoichet MS stood out with the highest number of publications and citations, totaling 66 articles. The University of Toronto led in institutional contributions with 65 publications, while China dominated in country-specific publications, accounting for 374 articles. However, to foster significant academic achievements, it is imperative for diverse authors, institutions, and countries to enhance collaboration. Current research in this field concentrates on scaffold architecture, nerve growth factor, the fibrotic microenvironment, and guidance channels. Simultaneously, upcoming research directions prioritize 3D bioprinting, injectable hydrogel, inflammation, and nanoparticles within the realm of hydrogel therapy for spinal cord injuries. CONCLUSIONS In summary, this study provided a comprehensive analysis of the current research status and frontiers of hydrogel therapy for spinal cord injury. The findings provide a foundation for future research and clinical translation efforts of hydrogel therapy in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongpeng Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Song Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Hao Zhong
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Mi Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Cong Xing
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Junrui Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Guangzhi Ning
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.
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Ameer G, Keate R, Bury M, Mendez-Santos M, Gerena A, Goedegebuure M, Rivnay J, Sharma A. Cell-free biodegradable electroactive scaffold for urinary bladder regeneration. RESEARCH SQUARE 2024:rs.3.rs-3817836. [PMID: 38352487 PMCID: PMC10862962 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3817836/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Tissue engineering heavily relies on cell-seeded scaffolds to support the complex biological and mechanical requirements of a target organ. However, in addition to safety and efficacy, translation of tissue engineering technology will depend on manufacturability, affordability, and ease of adoption. Therefore, there is a need to develop scalable biomaterial scaffolds with sufficient bioactivity to eliminate the need for exogenous cell seeding. Herein, we describe synthesis, characterization, and implementation of an electroactive biodegradable elastomer for urinary bladder tissue engineering. To create an electrically conductive and mechanically robust scaffold to support bladder tissue regeneration, we developed a phase-compatible functionalization method wherein the hydrophobic conductive polymer poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) was polymerized in situ within a similarly hydrophobic citrate-based elastomer poly(octamethylene-citrate-co-octanol) (POCO) film. We demonstrate the efficacy of this film as a scaffold for bladder augmentation in athymic rats, comparing PEDOT-POCO scaffolds to mesenchymal stromal cell-seeded POCO scaffolds. PEDOT-POCO recovered bladder function and anatomical structure comparably to the cell-seeded POCO scaffolds and significantly better than non-cell seeded POCO scaffolds. This manuscript reports: (1) a new phase-compatible functionalization method that confers electroactivity to a biodegradable elastic scaffold, and (2) the successful restoration of the anatomy and function of an organ using a cell-free electroactive scaffold.
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Tropp J, Collins CP, Xie X, Daso RE, Mehta AS, Patel SP, Reddy MM, Levin SE, Sun C, Rivnay J. Conducting Polymer Nanoparticles with Intrinsic Aqueous Dispersibility for Conductive Hydrogels. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2306691. [PMID: 37680065 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202306691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Conductive hydrogels are promising materials with mixed ionic-electronic conduction to interface living tissue (ionic signal transmission) with medical devices (electronic signal transmission). The hydrogel form factor also uniquely bridges the wet/soft biological environment with the dry/hard environment of electronics. The synthesis of hydrogels for bioelectronics requires scalable, biocompatible fillers with high electronic conductivity and compatibility with common aqueous hydrogel formulations/resins. Despite significant advances in the processing of carbon nanomaterials, fillers that satisfy all these requirements are lacking. Herein, intrinsically dispersible acid-crystalized PEDOT:PSS nanoparticles (ncrys-PEDOTX ) are reported which are processed through a facile and scalable nonsolvent induced phase separation method from commercial PEDOT:PSS without complex instrumentation. The particles feature conductivities of up to 410 S cm-1 , and when compared to other common conductive fillers, display remarkable dispersibility, enabling homogeneous incorporation at relatively high loadings within diverse aqueous biomaterial solutions without additives or surfactants. The aqueous dispersibility of the ncrys-PEDOTX particles also allows simple incorporation into resins designed for microstereolithography without sonication or surfactant optimization; complex biomedical structures with fine features (< 150 µm) are printed with up to 10% particle loading . The ncrys-PEDOTX particles overcome the challenges of traditional conductive fillers, providing a scalable, biocompatible, plug-and-play platform for soft organic bioelectronic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Tropp
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Caralyn P Collins
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Xinran Xie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Rachel E Daso
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Abijeet Singh Mehta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Shiv P Patel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Manideep M Reddy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Sophia E Levin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Cheng Sun
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Jonathan Rivnay
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
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Lopez-Larrea N, Gallastegui A, Lezama L, Criado-Gonzalez M, Casado N, Mecerreyes D. Fast Visible-Light 3D Printing of Conductive PEDOT:PSS Hydrogels. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024; 45:e2300229. [PMID: 37357826 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202300229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Functional inks for light-based 3D printing are actively being searched for being able to exploit all the potentialities of additive manufacturing. Herein, a fast visible-light photopolymerization process is showed of conductive PEDOT:PSS hydrogels. For this purpose, a new Type II photoinitiator system (PIS) based on riboflavin (Rf), triethanolamine (TEA), and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is investigated for the visible light photopolymerization of acrylic monomers. PEDOT:PSS has a dual role by accelerating the photoinitiation process and providing conductivity to the obtained hydrogels. Using this PIS, full monomer conversion is achieved in less than 2 min using visible light. First, the PIS mechanism is studied, proposing that electron transfer between the triplet excited state of the dye (3 Rf*) and the amine (TEA) is catalyzed by PEDOT:PSS. Second, a series of poly(2-hydroxyethyl acrylate)/PEDOT:PSS hydrogels with different compositions are obtained by photopolymerization. The presence of PEDOT:PSS negatively influences the swelling properties of hydrogels, but significantly increases its mechanical modulus and electrical properties. The new PIS is also tested for 3D printing in a commercially available Digital Light Processing (DLP) 3D printer (405 nm wavelength), obtaining high resolution and 500 µm hole size conductive scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naroa Lopez-Larrea
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Antonela Gallastegui
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Luis Lezama
- Departamento de Química Orgánica e Inorgánica, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Barrio Sarriena s/n, Leioa, Bizkaia, 48940, Spain
| | - Miryam Criado-Gonzalez
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Nerea Casado
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, Bilbao, 48009, Spain
| | - David Mecerreyes
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, Bilbao, 48009, Spain
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Kim SD, Kim K, Shin M. Recent advances in 3D printable conductive hydrogel inks for neural engineering. NANO CONVERGENCE 2023; 10:41. [PMID: 37679589 PMCID: PMC10484881 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-023-00389-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Recently, the 3D printing of conductive hydrogels has undergone remarkable advances in the fabrication of complex and functional structures. In the field of neural engineering, an increasing number of reports have been published on tissue engineering and bioelectronic approaches over the last few years. The convergence of 3D printing methods and electrically conducting hydrogels may create new clinical and therapeutic possibilities for precision regenerative medicine and implants. In this review, we summarize (i) advancements in preparation strategies for conductive materials, (ii) various printing techniques enabling the fabrication of electroconductive hydrogels, (iii) the required physicochemical properties of the printed constructs, (iv) their applications in bioelectronics and tissue regeneration for neural engineering, and (v) unconventional approaches and outlooks for the 3D printing of conductive hydrogels. This review provides technical insights into 3D printable conductive hydrogels and encompasses recent developments, specifically over the last few years of research in the neural engineering field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Dong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoungryong Kim
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Mikyung Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
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