Heterogeneous Bubble Nucleation by Homogeneous Crystal Nuclei in Poly( l ‐Lactic Acid) Foaming

Crystallization of Poly(ethylene terephthalate): A Review

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is a thermoplastic polyester with excellent thermal and mechanical properties, widely used in a variety of industrial fields. It is a semicrystalline polymer, and most of the industrial success of PET derives from its easily tunable crystallization kinetics, which allow users to produce the polymer with a high crystal fraction for applications that demand high thermomechanical resistance and barrier properties, or a fully amorphous polymer when high transparency of the product is needed. The main properties of the polymer are presented and discussed in this contribution, together with the literature data on the crystal structure and morphology of PET. This is followed by an in-depth analysis of its crystallization kinetics, including both primary crystal nucleation and crystal growth, as well as secondary crystallization. The effect of molar mass, catalyst residues, chain composition, and thermo-mechanical treatments on the crystallization kinetics, structure, and morphology of PET are also reviewed in this contribution.

The Effects of Nucleating Agents and Processing on the Crystallization and Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid: A Review

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biobased, biodegradable, non-toxic polymer widely considered for replacing traditional petroleum-based polymer materials. Being a semi-crystalline material, PLA has great potential in many fields, such as medical implants, drug delivery systems, etc. However, the slow crystallization rate of PLA limited the application and efficient fabrication of highly crystallized PLA products. This review paper investigated and summarized the influence of formulation, compounding, and processing on PLA's crystallization behaviors and mechanical performances. The paper reviewed the literature from different studies regarding the impact of these factors on critical crystallization parameters, such as the degree of crystallinity, crystallization rate, crystalline morphology, and mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, modulus, elongation, and impact resistance. Understanding the impact of the factors on crystallization and mechanical properties is critical for PLA processing technology innovations to meet the requirements of various applications of PLA.

Forefront Research of Foaming Strategies on Biodegradable Polymers and Their Composites by Thermal or Melt-Based Processing Technologies: Advances and Perspectives

The last few decades have witnessed significant advances in the development of polymeric-based foam materials. These materials find several practical applications in our daily lives due to their characteristic properties such as low density, thermal insulation, and porosity, which are important in packaging, in building construction, and in biomedical applications, respectively. The first foams with practical applications used polymeric materials of petrochemical origin. However, due to growing environmental concerns, considerable efforts have been made to replace some of these materials with biodegradable polymers. Foam processing has evolved greatly in recent years due to improvements in existing techniques, such as the use of supercritical fluids in extrusion foaming and foam injection moulding, as well as the advent or adaptation of existing techniques to produce foams, as in the case of the combination between additive manufacturing and foam technology. The use of supercritical CO2 is especially advantageous in the production of porous structures for biomedical applications, as CO2 is chemically inert and non-toxic; in addition, it allows for an easy tailoring of the pore structure through processing conditions. Biodegradable polymeric materials, despite their enormous advantages over petroleum-based materials, present some difficulties regarding their potential use in foaming, such as poor melt strength, slow crystallization rate, poor processability, low service temperature, low toughness, and high brittleness, which limits their field of application. Several strategies were developed to improve the melt strength, including the change in monomer composition and the use of chemical modifiers and chain extenders to extend the chain length or create a branched molecular structure, to increase the molecular weight and the viscosity of the polymer. The use of additives or fillers is also commonly used, as fillers can improve crystallization kinetics by acting as crystal-nucleating agents. Alternatively, biodegradable polymers can be blended with other biodegradable polymers to combine certain properties and to counteract certain limitations. This work therefore aims to provide the latest advances regarding the foaming of biodegradable polymers. It covers the main foaming techniques and their advances and reviews the uses of biodegradable polymers in foaming, focusing on the chemical changes of polymers that improve their foaming ability. Finally, the challenges as well as the main opportunities presented reinforce the market potential of the biodegradable polymer foam materials.

Progress in the Preparation, Properties, and Applications of PLA and Its Composite Microporous Materials by Supercritical CO2: A Review from 2020 to 2022

The development of degradable plastic foams is in line with the current development concept of being pollution free and sustainable. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) microporous foam with biodegradability, good heat resistance, biocompatibility, and mechanical properties can be successfully applied in cushioning packaging, heat insulation, noise reduction, filtration and adsorption, tissue engineering, and other fields. This paper summarizes and critically evaluates the latest research on preparing PLA microporous materials by supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) physical foaming since 2020. This paper first introduces the scCO₂ foaming technologies for PLA and its composite foams, discusses the CO₂-assisted foaming processes, and analyzes the effects of process parameters on PLA foaming. After that, the paper reviews the effects of modification methods such as chemical modification, filler filling, and mixing on the rheological and crystallization behaviors of PLA and provides an in-depth analysis of the mechanism of PLA foaming behavior to provide theoretical guidance for future research on PLA foaming. Lastly, the development and applications of PLA microporous materials based on scCO₂ foaming technologies are prospected.